材料与晶体Crack growth equation裂纹扩展方程用于计算循环载荷产生的疲劳裂纹的尺寸。疲劳裂纹的增长可能导致灾难性故障，特别是对于飞机而言。当许多不断增长的疲劳裂纹相互作用时，就被称为广泛的疲劳损伤。通过预测裂纹的大小，裂纹扩展方程可用于确保设计阶段和运行期间的安全。在关键结构中，可以记录载荷并用于预测裂缝的大小，以确保在任何裂缝失效之前进行维护或报废。由于疲劳寿命对裂纹萌生缺陷的尺寸和形状以及部件所承受的假定载荷和实际载荷之间的可变性的敏感性，安全系数用于将预测疲劳寿命缩短为使用寿命。
A crack growth equation is used for calculating the size of a fatigue crack growing from cyclic loads. The growth of a fatigue crack can result in catastrophic failure, particularly in the case of aircraft. When many growing fatigue cracks interact with one another it is known as widespread fatigue damage. A crack growth equation can be used to ensure safety, both in the design phase and during operation, by predicting the size of cracks. In critical structure, loads can be recorded and used to predict the size of cracks to ensure maintenance or retirement occurs prior to any of the cracks failing. Safety factors are used to reduce the predicted fatigue life to a service fatigue life because of the sensitivity of the fatigue life to the size and shape of crack initiating defects and the variability between assumed loading and actual loading experienced by a component.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在几何和拓扑学中，起皱是一张纸或其他二维流形经历无序变形以产生三维结构的过程，该三维结构包括具有可变密度的脊和面的随机网络。研究拓扑的数学家对褶皱结构的几何形状很感兴趣。研究发现，皱巴巴的纸球表现出令人惊讶的复杂结构，其抗压强度是由折叠之间局部平坦面的摩擦相互作用产生的。褶皱结构相对于其密度而言异常高的抗压强度引起了材料科学和机械工程学科的兴趣。
In geometry and topology, crumpling is the process whereby a sheet of paper or other two-dimensional manifold undergoes disordered deformation to yield a three-dimensional structure comprising a random network of ridges and facets with variable density. The geometry of crumpled structures is of interest to mathematicians studying topology. Crumpled paper balls have been studied and found to exhibit surprisingly complex structures with compressive strength resulting from frictional interactions at locally flat facets between folds. The unusually high compressive strength of crumpled structures relative to their density is of interest in the disciplines of materials science and mechanical engineering.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗晶体生长(英语：Crystal growth)是物质结晶过程中，继成核之后进行的一个重要阶段。宏观上，晶体生长过程是晶体——环境相(蒸气、溶液、熔体) 界面向环境相中不断推进的过程，即晶核超过临界大小之后，由包含组成晶体单元的母相从低有序相向高有序晶相的转变。晶体被定义为原子，分子或离子以有序的重复模式排列，晶格在所有三个空间维度上延伸。 因此，晶体生长不同于液滴生长，因为在生长过程中，分子或离子必须落入正确的晶格位置，以便有序的晶体生长。
Crystal growth is a major stage of a crystallization process, and consists of the addition of new atoms, ions, or polymer strings into the characteristic arrangement of the crystalline lattice. The growth typically follows an initial stage of either homogeneous or heterogeneous (surface catalyzed) nucleation, unless a "seed" crystal, purposely added to start the growth, was already present. The action of crystal growth yields a crystalline solid whose atoms or molecules are close packed, with fixed positions in space relative to each other. The crystalline state of matter is characterized by a distinct structural rigidity and very high resistance to deformation (i.e. changes of shape and/or volume). Most crystalline solids have high values both of Young's modulus and of the shear modulus of elasticity.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗孪晶，亦称双晶，是指由两个以上同种晶体所构成﹑非平行的规则连生体。在构成孪晶的两个单晶体间﹐必然会有部分的对应晶面﹑对应晶棱相互平行﹐但不可能全部一一平行﹐然而它们必可通过某一反映﹑旋转180°或者反伸（倒反）的对称操作而达到彼此重合或者完全平行。
Crystal twinning occurs when two or more adjacent crystals of the same mineral are oriented so that they share some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals that are tightly bonded to each other. The surface along which the lattice points are shared in twinned crystals is called a composition surface or twin plane. In crystallography twinned crystals are described by a number of twin laws, which are specific to the crystal structure. The type of twinning can be a diagnostic tool in mineral identification. There are three main types of twinning. The first is growth twinning which can occur both in very large and very small particles. The second is transformation twinning, where there is a change in the crystal structure.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗循环应力是随时间重复变化的力（又称应力）的分布。例如，考虑用于驱动空中升降机（例如滑雪缆车）的大轮之一。缠绕在轮子上的钢丝绳对轮子和支撑轮子的驱动轴施加向下的力。尽管轴、轮和电缆移动，但力仍然相对于地面几乎垂直。因此，驱动轴表面上的一点在指向地面时会受到拉力，在指向天空时会受到压缩。
Cyclic stress is the distribution of forces (a.k.a. stresses) that change over time in a repetitive fashion. As an example, consider one of the large wheels used to drive an aerial lift such as a ski lift. The wire cable wrapped around the wheel exerts a downward force on the wheel and the drive shaft supporting the wheel. Although the shaft, wheel, and cable move, the force remains nearly vertical relative to the ground. Thus a point on the surface of the drive shaft will undergo tension when it is pointing towards the ground and compression when it is pointing to the sky.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗金刚石压砧是地质学、工程学或材料科学实验中使用的一种高压器件，可以帮助对毫米级以下的物体施加极高的压力，常可达到100至200兆帕。该器件常被用来再现行星内部深处的高压状态以合成通常条件下难以见到的物质或状态，它由两颗相对的金刚石组成，其间夹住样品。2017年，美国哈佛大学科学家宣称，利用该器件将以3250万公斤的力施加于6.5平方公分的氢样本上，此压力已强过地心压力，也已逼近合成钻石强度崩溃边缘。 成功让气体型态的氢在充分压缩后，转变成为金属氢。
A diamond anvil cell (DAC) is a high-pressure device used in geology, engineering, and materials science experiments. It permits the compression of a small (sub-millimeter-sized) piece of material to extreme pressures, typically up to around 100–200 gigapascals, although it is possible to achieve pressures up to 770 gigapascals (7,700,000 bars or 7.7 million atmospheres). The device has been used to recreate the pressure existing deep inside planets to synthesize materials and phases not observed under typical ambient conditions. Notable examples include the non-molecular ice X, polymeric nitrogen and metallic phases of xenon, lonsdaleite, and potentially metallic hydrogen. A DAC consists of two opposing diamonds with a sample compressed between the polished culets (tips). Pressure may be monitored using a reference material whose behavior under pressure is known.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗电阻率（英语：resistivity），也称为体积电阻率或比电阻，是材料的特性，用于测量其电阻或抵抗电流的能力。 低电阻率表示材料容易通过电流。 电阻率通常用希腊字母ρ表示。电阻率的SI单位是欧姆·米（Ω· m）。例如，如果1 m3实心立方体材料在两个相对面上具有片状触点，这些触点之间的电阻为1 Ω，则材料的电阻率为1 Ω·m。 电导率（英语：conductivity），或比电导，是电阻率的倒数，代表材料传导电流的能力。 通常用希腊字母σ表示（西格玛），但特别在电气工程中，有时会用到字母κ（kappa ）和γ（gamma）。电导率的SI单位是西门子每米（S/m）。 电阻率和电导率是材料的内含性质。电阻和电导是相对应的外延属性，它们表现特定物体对电流相反的反应。
In physics, electrical resistivity and electrical conductivity are two intrinsic properties of materials that measure a material's local, intrinsic ability to conduct electric current. They are reciprocals of each other, so each can be deduced from the other. They are usually numbers or scalar fields, but can be generalized to tensor quantities when the material is non-isotropic, or to complex quantities in the setting of time-varying currents. Electrical resistivity (also called volume resistivity or specific electrical resistance) is a fundamental specific property of a material that measures its electrical resistance or how strongly it resists electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω⋅m).
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗扩展武尔夫结构是指对纳米颗粒以及较大矿物晶体的结构进行建模的多种不同方法。它们可用于了解宝石和孪生晶体的形状，以及其他领域，例如了解形状以及纳米颗粒如何在使用非均相催化剂的化学品商业生产中发挥作用。扩展武尔夫结构是武尔夫结构的变体，用于孤立的固体单晶。它们包括基材上的固体颗粒、具有内部边界的颗粒以及生长很重要的情况。根据是否存在双胞胎或基质，存在不同的情况，如决策树图中所示。
Extended Wulff constructions refers to a number of different ways to model the structure of nanoparticles as well as larger mineral crystals. They can be used to understand the shape of gemstones and crystals with twins, and in other areas such as understanding both the shape and how nanoparticles play a role in the commercial production of chemicals using heterogeneous catalysts. Extended Wulff constructions are variants of the Wulff construction, which is used for a solid single crystal in isolation. They include cases for solid particles on substrates, those with internal boundaries and also when growth is important. Depending upon whether there are twins or a substrate, there are different cases as indicated in the decision tree figure.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗五面体，也称为十面体纳米颗粒、多重孪晶颗粒 (MTP)、五角形纳米颗粒、五重孪晶或五重孪晶，是一种孪晶晶体，其尺寸范围为纳米到毫米。它包含围绕公共轴排列的五种不同的单晶体。在大多数情况下，每个单元都具有面心立方（fcc）原子排列，尽管它们也因其他类型的晶体结构而闻名。它们在纳米范围内以相当小的尺寸成核，但可以长得更大。它们存在于从矿山中挖掘出来的矿物晶体中，例如来自乌克兰的五方矿或天然金、通过电化学过程生长的金属棒以及通过金属在基材上或在惰性气体中凝结而产生的纳米颗粒中。
A fiveling, also known as a decahedral nanoparticle, a multiply-twinned particle (MTP), a pentagonal nanoparticle, a pentatwin, or a five-fold twin is a type of twinned crystal that can exist at sizes ranging from nanometers to millimetres. It contains five different single crystals arranged around a common axis. In most cases each unit has a face centered cubic (fcc) arrangement of the atoms, although they are also known for other types of crystal structure. They nucleate at quite small sizes in the nanometer range, but can be grown much larger. They have been found in mineral crystals excavated from mines such as pentagonite or native gold from Ukraine, in rods of metals grown via electrochemical processes and in nanoparticles produced by the condensation of metals either onto substrates or in inert gases.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗力线是固体力学中用于可视化变形体内力的方法。力线是一条曲线，以图形方式表示作用在体内跨假想内表面的内力。力线显示最大内力及其方向。
Force lines is a method used in solid mechanics for visualization of internal forces in a deformed body. A force line is a curve representing graphically the internal force acting within a body across imaginary internal surfaces. The force lines show the maximal internal forces and their directions.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗断裂是物体或材料在应力作用下破裂或破碎成碎片。断裂科学是物理学、冶金学和工程学的一个研究领域。固体的破裂通常是由于固体内某些位移不连续表面的发展而发生的。如果位移垂直于表面发展，则称为正向拉伸裂纹或简称为裂纹；如果位移沿切向发展，则称为剪切裂纹、滑移带或位错。发生脆性断裂时，断裂前没有任何明显变形。可见变形后发生延性断裂。断裂强度或断裂强度是试样失效或断裂时的应力。断裂力学的目标是详细了解材料中断裂如何发生和发展。
Fracture is the cracking or breaking into pieces of an object or material under the action of stress. The science of fracture is a field of study in physics, metallurgy and engineering. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation. Brittle fractures occur without any apparent deformation before fracture. Ductile fractures occur after visible deformation. Fracture strength, or breaking strength, is the stress when a specimen fails or fractures. The detailed understanding of how a fracture occurs and develops in materials is the object of fracture mechanics.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗汉金森方程（也称为汉金森公式或汉金森准则）是用于预测木材离轴单轴抗压强度的数学关系。该公式还可用于计算弹性极限下的纤维应力或应力波速度，作为木材中纹理角度的函数。
Hankinson's equation (also called Hankinson's formula or Hankinson's criterion) is a mathematical relationship for predicting the off-axis uniaxial compressive strength of wood. The formula can also be used to compute the fiber stress or the stress wave velocity at the elastic limit as a function of grain angle in wood.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗二十面体孪晶是在原子簇和具有数千个原子的纳米粒子中发现的原子结构。它们的原子结构与块体材料的原子结构略有不同，并且包含五重对称性。它们已在许多科学领域进行过分析，包括晶体生长、晶体学、化学物理、表面科学和材料科学，有时由于其高度对称性而被认为是美丽的。这些簇的最简单形式是沿着三角形（例如立方-(111)）面连接的二十个互连的四面体晶体，尽管也存在更复杂的外表面变体。相关结构有五个类似孪生排列的单元，在 19 世纪被称为“五体”，最近被称为“十面体多重孪生粒子”、“五边形粒子”或“星形粒子”。
An icosahedral twin is an atomic structure found in atomic clusters and also nanoparticles with some thousands of atoms. Their atomic structure is slightly different from what is found for bulk materials, and contains five-fold symmetries. They have been analyzed in many areas of science including crystal growth, crystallography, chemical physics, surface science and materials science, and are sometimes considered as beautiful due to their high symmetry. The simplest form of these clusters is twenty interlinked tetrahedral crystals joined along triangular (e.g. cubic-(111)) faces, although more complex variants of the outer surface also occur. A related structure has five units similarly arranged with twinning, which were known as "fivelings" in the 19th century, and more recently as "decahedral multiply twinned particles", "pentagonal particles" or "star particles".
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗脉冲激励技术 (IET) 是一种无损材料表征技术，用于确定感兴趣材料的弹性特性和内摩擦。它测量共振频率，以计算矩形棒、圆柱棒和盘形样品等预定义形状的杨氏模量、剪切模量、泊松比和内摩擦力。测量可以在室温或高温（高达 1700 °C）的不同气氛下进行。测量原理是用小弹丸敲击样品，并用压电传感器、麦克风、激光振动计或加速度计记录感应振动信号。为了优化结果，可以使用麦克风或激光振动计，因为测试件和传感器之间没有接触。
The impulse excitation technique (IET) is a non-destructive material characterization technique to determine the elastic properties and internal friction of a material of interest. It measures the resonant frequencies in order to calculate the Young's modulus, shear modulus, Poisson's ratio and internal friction of predefined shapes like rectangular bars, cylindrical rods and disc shaped samples. The measurements can be performed at room temperature or at elevated temperatures (up to 1700 °C) under different atmospheres. The measurement principle is based on tapping the sample with a small projectile and recording the induced vibration signal with a piezoelectric sensor, microphone, laser vibrometer or accelerometer. To optimize the results a microphone or a laser vibrometer can be used as there is no contact between the test-piece and the sensor.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗初湿浸渍（IW 或 IWI），也称为毛细管浸渍或干浸渍，是合成多相催化剂的常用技术。通常，活性金属前体溶解在水溶液或有机溶液中。然后将含金属的溶液添加到含有与所添加的溶液的体积相同的孔体积的催化剂载体中。毛细管作用将溶液吸入孔隙中。添加超过载体孔体积的溶液会导致溶液传输从毛细管作用过程变为扩散过程，该过程要慢得多。然后可以对催化剂进行干燥和煅烧，以除去溶液中的挥发性成分，将金属沉积在催化剂表面上。最大负载量受到前体在溶液中的溶解度的限制。
Incipient wetness impregnation (IW or IWI), also called capillary impregnation or dry impregnation, is a commonly used technique for the synthesis of heterogeneous catalysts. Typically, the active metal precursor is dissolved in an aqueous or organic solution. Then the metal-containing solution is added to a catalyst support containing the same pore volume as the volume of the solution that was added. Capillary action draws the solution into the pores. Solution added in excess of the support pore volume causes the solution transport to change from a capillary action process to a diffusion process, which is much slower. The catalyst can then be dried and calcined to drive off the volatile components within the solution, depositing the metal on the catalyst surface. The maximum loading is limited by the solubility of the precursor in the solution.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗当部分熔化的固体物质没有均匀熔化时，就会发生不一致熔化，从而导致所得液体和固体的化学成分与原始固体的化学成分不同。例如，正长石 (KAlSi3O8) 的熔化除了熔体之外还产生白榴石 (KAlSi2O6)。产生的熔体富含二氧化硅 (SiO2)。白榴石和形成的熔体的比例可以重新组合以产生起始长石的本体组合物。另一种可能不一致熔化的矿物是顽辉石 (Mg2Si2O6)，在低压熔化时，除了富含 SiO2 的熔体之外，它还会生成镁橄榄石 (Mg2SiO4)。顽辉石在 2.5 至 5.5 千巴之间的较高压力下同成分熔化。
Incongruent melting occurs when a solid substance being partially melted does not melt uniformly, so that the chemical composition of neither the resulting liquid nor the resulting solid is the same as that of the original solid. For example, melting of orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) produces leucite (KAlSi2O6) in addition to a melt. The melt produced is richer in silica (SiO2). The proportions of leucite and melt formed can be recombined to yield the bulk composition of the starting feldspar. Another mineral that can melt incongruently is enstatite (Mg2Si2O6), which produces forsterite (Mg2SiO4) in addition to a melt richer in SiO2 when melting at low pressure. Enstatite melts congruently at higher pressures between 2.5 and 5.5 kilobars.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗压痕尺寸效应 (ISE) 是指随着压痕尺寸在小范围内减小，硬度趋于增加的观察结果。当在材料测试过程中产生压痕（任何小标记，但通常用特殊工具制成）时，材料的硬度不是恒定的。在小尺度上，材料实际上比在宏观尺度上更硬。对于常规压痕尺寸效应，压痕越小，硬度差异越大。通过不同深度的纳米压痕和微米压痕测量可以看到这种效果。位错通过位错阻挡机制增加流动应力，从而增加材料硬度。材料包含统计存储位错 (SSD)，这些位错是由均匀应变产生的，并且取决于材料和加工条件。
The indentation size effect (ISE) is the observation that hardness tends to increase as the indent size decreases at small scales. When an indent (any small mark, but usually made with a special tool) is created during material testing, the hardness of the material is not constant. At the small scale, materials will actually be harder than at the macro-scale. For the conventional indentation size effect, the smaller the indentation, the larger the difference in hardness. The effect has been seen through nanoindentation and microindentation measurements at varying depths. Dislocations increase material hardness by increasing flow stress through dislocation blocking mechanisms. Materials contain statistically stored dislocations (SSD) which are created by homogeneous strain and are dependent upon the material and processing conditions.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗工业计算机断层扫描 (CT) 扫描是任何计算机辅助断层扫描过程，通常是 X 射线计算机断层扫描，它使用辐射来生成扫描对象的三维内部和外部表示。工业 CT 扫描已在许多工业领域用于组件的内部检查。工业 CT 扫描的一些主要用途是缺陷检测、故障分析、计量、装配分析和逆向工程应用。正如在医学成像中一样，工业成像包括非断层射线照相（工业射线照相）和计算机断层射线照相（计算机断层扫描）。
Industrial computed tomography (CT) scanning is any computer-aided tomographic process, usually X-ray computed tomography, that uses irradiation to produce three-dimensional internal and external representations of a scanned object. Industrial CT scanning has been used in many areas of industry for internal inspection of components. Some of the key uses for industrial CT scanning have been flaw detection, failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis and reverse engineering applications. Just as in medical imaging, industrial imaging includes both nontomographic radiography (industrial radiography) and computed tomographic radiography (computed tomography).
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗集成计算材料工程 (ICME) 是一种通过链接多个长度尺度的材料模型来设计产品、构成产品的材料及其相关材料加工方法的方法。关键词是“集成”，涉及多个长度尺度的集成模型，以及“工程”，表示工业实用性。重点是材料，即了解过程如何产生材料结构、这些结构如何产生材料特性以及如何为给定应用选择材料。关键环节是工艺-结构-性能-性能。美国国家科学院的报告描述了使用多尺度材料建模来捕获材料的工艺-结构-特性-性能的需要。
Integrated Computational Materials Engineering (ICME) is an approach to design products, the materials that comprise them, and their associated materials processing methods by linking materials models at multiple length scales. Key words are "Integrated", involving integrating models at multiple length scales, and "Engineering", signifying industrial utility. The focus is on the materials, i.e. understanding how processes produce material structures, how those structures give rise to material properties, and how to select materials for a given application. The key links are process-structures-properties-performance. The National Academies report describes the need for using multiscale materials modeling to capture the process-structures-properties-performance of a material.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗原子间势是计算空间中给定位置的原子系统势能的数学函数。原子间势被广泛用作计算化学、计算物理学和计算材料科学中分子力学和分子动力学模拟的物理基础，以解释和预测材料特性。利用原子间势探索的定量性质和定性现象的例子包括晶格参数、表面能、界面能、吸附、内聚力、热膨胀、弹性和塑性材料行为以及化学反应。
Interatomic potentials are mathematical functions to calculate the potential energy of a system of atoms with given positions in space. Interatomic potentials are widely used as the physical basis of molecular mechanics and molecular dynamics simulations in computational chemistry, computational physics and computational materials science to explain and predict materials properties. Examples of quantitative properties and qualitative phenomena that are explored with interatomic potentials include lattice parameters, surface energies, interfacial energies, adsorption, cohesion, thermal expansion, and elastic and plastic material behavior, as well as chemical reactions.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在晶体学中，间隙位置、孔或空隙是晶体结构中原子（球体）堆积之间存在的空白空间。如果你尝试将圆圈叠在一起，很容易看到这些孔。无论它们距离有多近或如何排列，它们之间都会有空白。在晶胞中也是如此；无论原子如何排列，原子之间都会存在间隙位置。这些位点或孔洞可以用其他原子填充（间隙缺陷）。带有密集圆圈的图片只是 2D 表示。在晶格中，原子（球体）会以 3D 排列方式排列。根据晶格中原子的排列，这会产生不同形状的间隙位点。
In crystallography, interstitial sites, holes or voids are the empty space that exists between the packing of atoms (spheres) in the crystal structure. The holes are easy to see if you try to pack circles together; no matter how close you get them or how you arrange them, you will have empty space in between. The same is true in a unit cell; no matter how the atoms are arranged, there will be interstitial sites present between the atoms. These sites or holes can be filled with other atoms (interstitial defect). The picture with packed circles is only a 2D representation. In a crystal lattice, the atoms (spheres) would be packed in a 3D arrangement. This results in different shaped interstitial sites depending on the arrangement of the atoms in the lattice.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗反转域边界 (IDB) 是晶体材料中的平面缺陷，它将两个具有相反晶体极性的区域分开。 IDB 最常在非中心对称极性半导体和层状材料中观察到，但当交换亚晶格占据以产生不同的域时，它们也可以出现在任何晶体固体中。 IDB 很重要，因为它们会影响材料特性，并且在高质量晶体材料的生产过程中可以有意引入或以其他方式避免。 IDB 与反相边界 (APB) 类似，但它们并不相同。 APB 是一种晶体缺陷，由于非整数晶格平移而出现在有序材料中。虽然有序亚晶格异相移动，但它不一定产生两个极性相反的区域。
An inversion domain boundary (IDB) is a planar defect in crystalline materials that separates two regions with opposing crystallographic polarity. IDBs are most frequently observed in non-centrosymmetric polar semiconductors and layered materials, but they can also occur in any crystalline solid when sublattice occupancy is exchanged to yield a distinct domain. IDBs are important because they affect material properties and can be intentionally introduced or otherwise avoided during the production of high-quality crystal material. An IDB is similar to an antiphase boundary (APB), but they are not the same. An APB is a type of crystallographic defect that occurs in ordered materials because of a non-integer lattice translation. While the ordered sublattices are shifted out of phase, it does not necessarily produce two regions of opposite polarity.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗离子束分析 (IBA) 是现代分析技术的一个重要系列，涉及使用 MeV 离子束来探测固体近表面层的成分并获得元素深度剖面。 IBA 不限于 MeV 能量范围。它可以使用 FIB 和二次离子质谱等技术在低能量 (<Kev) 下运行，也可以使用大型强子对撞机 (LHC) 等仪器在较高能量 (>GeV) 下运行。所有 IBA 方法都具有高灵敏度，可以检测亚单分子层范围内的元素。深度分辨率通常在几纳米到几十纳米的范围内。可以实现原子深度分辨率，但需要特殊设备。分析的深度范围从几十纳米到几十微米。 IBA 方法始终是定量的，准确度只有几个百分点。
Ion beam analysis (IBA) is an important family of modern analytical techniques involving the use of MeV ion beams to probe the composition and obtain elemental depth profiles in the near-surface layer of solids. IBA is not restricted to MeV energy ranges. It can be operated at low energy (<Kev) using techniques such as FIB, and Secondary ion mass spectroscopy, as well as at higher energies (>GeV) using instruments like the LHC. All IBA methods are highly sensitive and allow the detection of elements in the sub-monolayer range. The depth resolution is typically in the range of a few nanometers to a few ten nanometers. Atomic depth resolution can be achieved, but requires special equipment. The analyzed depth ranges from a few ten nanometers to a few ten micrometers. IBA methods are always quantitative with an accuracy of a few percent.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗离子注入诱导的纳米颗粒形成是一种制造用于电子产品的纳米尺寸颗粒的技术。
Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation is a technique for creating nanometer-sized particles for use in electronics.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗等温微量热法（IMC）是一种对化学、物理和生物过程进行实时监测和动态分析的实验室方法。在数小时或数天的时间内，IMC 确定小安瓿（例如 3–20 ml）中的样本在恒定设定温度（约 15 °C–150 °C）下此类过程的开始、速率、程度和能量。 IMC 通过测量和记录进出样品安瓿的净热流率 (μJ/s = μW) 以及消耗或产生的累积热量 (J) 与经过时间的关系来完成此动态分析。 IMC 是一种强大且多功能的分析工具，有四个密切相关的原因： 所有化学和物理过程要么是放热的，要么是吸热的——产生或消耗热量。热流速率与过程发生的速率成正比。
Isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC) is a laboratory method for real-time monitoring and dynamic analysis of chemical, physical and biological processes. Over a period of hours or days, IMC determines the onset, rate, extent and energetics of such processes for specimens in small ampoules (e.g. 3–20 ml) at a constant set temperature (c. 15 °C–150 °C). IMC accomplishes this dynamic analysis by measuring and recording vs. elapsed time the net rate of heat flow (μJ/s = μW) to or from the specimen ampoule, and the cumulative amount of heat (J) consumed or produced. IMC is a powerful and versatile analytical tool for four closely related reasons: All chemical and physical processes are either exothermic or endothermic—produce or consume heat. The rate of heat flow is proportional to the rate of the process taking place.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗Jesmonite 是一种由矿物基粉末与水性丙烯酸树脂结合而成的复合材料。由 Peter Hawkins 于 1984 年在英国开发。 Jesmonite 被广泛用作传统石膏和树脂基材料的多功能、耐用且环保的替代品。由于其易用性、审美多样性和低毒性，它在美术、建筑、电影和修复领域很受欢迎。
Jesmonite is a composite material consisting of a mineral-based powder combined with a water-based acrylic resin. Developed in 1984, in the United Kingdom, by Peter Hawkins. Jesmonite is widely used as a versatile, durable, and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plaster and resin-based materials. It is popular in fine arts, architecture, film, and restoration due to its ease of use, aesthetic versatility, and low toxicity.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在结构工程中，约翰逊抛物线公式是一个基于经验的方程，用于计算柱的临界屈曲应力。该公式由约翰·巴特勒·约翰逊 (John Butler Johnson) 于 1893 年提出，作为低长细比（回转半径与有效长度之比）条件下欧拉临界载荷公式的替代方案。该方程在材料的屈服应力和临界屈曲应力之间进行插值，该应力由欧拉公式给出，该公式将长细比与柱屈曲所需的应力联系起来。屈曲是指结构失去稳定性的一种失效模式。这是由于结构刚度不足造成的。在细长杆上施加负载可能会在样本因压缩而失效之前导致屈曲失效。
In structural engineering, Johnson's parabolic formula is an empirically based equation for calculating the critical buckling stress of a column. The formula was developed by John Butler Johnson in 1893 as an alternative to Euler's critical load formula under low slenderness ratio (the ratio of radius of gyration to effective length) conditions. The equation interpolates between the yield stress of the material and the critical buckling stress given by Euler's formula relating the slenderness ratio to the stress required to buckle a column. Buckling refers to a mode of failure in which the structure loses stability. It is caused by a lack of structural stiffness. Placing a load on a long slender bar may cause a buckling failure before the specimen can fail by compression.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在固态物理学中，戈薇金属或戈薇磁体是一种铁磁量子材料。戈薇磁铁中的原子晶格具有分层重叠的三角形和大的六边形空隙，类似于传统日本篮子编织中的戈薇图案。这种几何形状产生了具有狄拉克交叉的平坦电子能带结构，其中低能电子动力学密切相关。戈薇金属中的电子会经历“量子霍尔效应的三维表亲”：磁效应要求电子在戈薇三角形周围流动，类似于超导性。这种现象在许多材料中在低温和高外场下都会发生，但与超导不同的是，已知材料在标准条件下仍能保持这种效应。
In solid-state physics, the kagome metal or kagome magnet is a type of ferromagnetic quantum material. The atomic lattice in a kagome magnet has layered overlapping triangles and large hexagonal voids, akin to the kagome pattern in traditional Japanese basket-weaving. This geometry induces a flat electronic band structure with Dirac crossings, in which the low-energy electron dynamics correlate strongly. Electrons in a kagome metal experience a "three-dimensional cousin of the quantum Hall effect": magnetic effects require electrons to flow around the kagome triangles, akin to superconductivity. This phenomenon occurs in many materials at low temperatures and high external field, but, unlike superconductivity, materials are known in which the effect remains under standard conditions.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗凯泽效应是地质学和材料科学中观察到的一种现象，它描述了岩石或其他材料在受到重复循环的机械应力作用下的声发射 (AE) 或地震活动模式。在特定载荷下表现出初始地震响应的材料中，凯撒效应描述了在超过该载荷之前不存在声发射或地震事件。凯塞效应是由先前步骤中材料中产生的不连续性（断裂）引起的，这些不连续性在超过之前的应力之前不会移动、扩展或传播。
The Kaiser effect is a phenomenon observed in geology and material science that describes a pattern of acoustic emission (AE) or seismicity in a body of rock or other material subjected to repeated cycles of mechanical stress. In material that exhibits an initial seismic response under a certain load, the Kaiser effect describes the absence of acoustic emission or seismic events until that load is exceeded. The Kaiser effect results from discontinuities (fractures) created in material during previous steps that do not move, expand, or propagate until the former stress is exceeded.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗科普-埃切尔斯效应是一种闪闪发光的环或盘，有时由旋翼飞机在沙质条件下运行时产生，特别是在夜间靠近地面时。这个名字是由摄影师 Michael Yon 创造的，以纪念两名在战斗中阵亡的士兵；美国陆军游骑兵本杰明·科普和英国士兵约瑟夫·埃切尔斯。两人于 2009 年 7 月在阿富汗桑金的战斗中丧生。用于描述这种现象的其他名称包括闪烁、光环效应、精灵尘埃和电晕效应。
The Kopp–Etchells effect is a sparkling ring or disk that is sometimes produced by rotary-wing aircraft when operating in sandy conditions, particularly near the ground at night. The name was coined by photographer Michael Yon to honor two soldiers who were killed in combat; Benjamin Kopp, a US Army Ranger, and Joseph Etchells, a British soldier. Both were killed in combat in Sangin, Afghanistan in July 2009. Other names that have been used to describe this phenomenon include scintillation, halo effect, pixie dust, and corona effect.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗