材料与晶体Mössbauer effect穆斯堡尔效应（Mössbauer effect），即原子核辐射的无反冲共振吸收。这个效应首先是由德国物理学家穆斯堡尔于1958年首次在实验中实现的，因此被命名为穆斯堡尔效应。其主要应用是穆斯堡尔谱学。 理论上，当一个原子核由激发态跃迁到基态，发出一个γ射线光子。当这个光子遇到另一个同样的原子核时，就能够被共振吸收。但是实际情况中，处于自由状态的原子核要实现上述过程是困难的。因为原子核在放出一个光子的时候，自身也具有了一个反冲动量，这个反冲动量会使光子的能量减少。同样原理，吸收光子的原子核光子由于反冲效应，吸收的光子能量会有所增大。这样造成相同原子核的发射谱和吸收谱有一定差异，所以自由的原子核很难实现共振吸收。迄今为止，人们还没有在气体和不太粘稠的液体中观察到穆斯堡尔效应。
The Mössbauer effect, or recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence, is a physical phenomenon, named after Rudolf Mössbauer who investigated it in 1958. It involves the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by atomic nuclei bound in a solid. Its main application is in Mössbauer spectroscopy. In the Mössbauer effect, a narrow resonance for nuclear gamma emission and absorption results from the momentum of recoil being delivered to a surrounding crystal lattice rather than to the emitting or absorbing nucleus alone. When this occurs, no gamma energy is lost to the kinetic energy of recoiling nuclei at either the emitting or absorbing end of a gamma transition: emission and absorption occur at the same energy, resulting in strong, resonant absorption.
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查看内容许可 ↗类金属（metalloid）又称准金属（quasimetal），是兼有一定金属性和非金属性的元素；此术语是用来分类化学元素的化学名词。 元素周期表上的化学元素几乎都可以依据其物理与化学特性被分类为金属或非金属；但也有一些特性介于金属与非金属之间的元素，即类金属。一般将硼、硅、锗、砷、锑、碲等6种位于金属和非金属分界线左右的元素视为类金属，钋和砹有时亦被归于此类。这些类金属已为现代高科技电子产业的主要半导体材料。 “类金属”一词并没有明确的定义，这些元素外观具有银灰或灰色金属光泽，和金属化合形成合金（如AsCu、TeFe）类似金属；然其化学性质则较接近于非金属，它们的化合物多为共价化合物，少数为离子化合物。 与类金属近似的术语是半金属（semimetal），典型的半金属元素有：砷、锑、铋、α-锡（灰锡）和石墨（碳的一种同素异形体）。前两者（砷 As、锑 Sb）也被认为是类金属，但铋、灰锡和石墨通常不被视为类金属。与类金属不同，半金属也可以是化合物，例如碲化汞（HgTe）。
The word metalloid comes from the Latin metallum ("metal") and the Greek oeidḗs ("resembling in form or appearance"). However, there is no standard definition of a metalloid and no complete agreement on which elements are metalloids. Despite the lack of specificity, the term remains in use in the literature. The six commonly recognised metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. Five elements are less frequently so classified: carbon, aluminium, selenium, polonium and astatine. On a standard periodic table, all eleven elements are in a diagonal region of the p-block extending from boron at the upper left to astatine at lower right. Some periodic tables include a dividing line between metals and nonmetals, and the metalloids may be found close to this line. Typical metalloids have a metallic appearance, may be brittle and are only fair conductors of electricity. They can form alloys with metals, and many of their other physical properties and chemical properties are intermediate between those of metallic and nonmetallic elements.
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查看内容许可 ↗光镊、光学镊子或光钳（英文：optical tweezers）是一种通过高度聚焦激光束产生力（量级通常为皮牛顿级）移动微小透明物体的装置。其中把持物体的区域也称为光阱 (optical trap)，相应的技术称作光学捕捉 (optical trapping)。这种技术可以用于移动细胞或病毒颗粒，把细胞捏成各种形状，或者冷却原子。由于光镊的力可以精准地直接作用于细胞甚至更小的目标，因此在生物学方面的应用变得越来越广泛。
Optical tweezers (originally called single-beam gradient force trap) are scientific instruments that use a highly focused laser beam to hold and move microscopic and sub-microscopic objects like atoms, nanoparticles and droplets, in a manner similar to tweezers. If the object is held in air or vacuum without additional support, it can be called optical levitation. The laser light provides an attractive or repulsive force (typically on the order of piconewtons), depending on the relative refractive index between particle and surrounding medium. Levitation is possible if the force of the light counters the force of gravity. The trapped particles are usually micron-sized, or even smaller. Dielectric and absorbing particles can be trapped, too.
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查看内容许可 ↗介观物理学（mesoscopic physics）是凝聚态物理学的一个分支学科，研究的是尺寸范围从纳米级到微米级之间的材料 。“介观（mesoscopic）”这个词汇，是由Van Kampen于1976年所创，指的是介乎于微观和宏观之间的尺度。介观物理学的研究对宏观物体的小型化（比如微电子器件）有重要要意义。介观尺度和纳米材料的典型尺度（10-9~10-7m）有很大重合，因此介观物理学与纳米技术领域有着密切的联系。这一领域的研究常称为“介观物理和纳米科技”。 从微观尺度上看，介观材料和宏观材料一样含有大量原子，但它和宏观材料具有很不一样的性质：宏观物体遵循经典力学定律，样本的性质由构成材料的平均值给出；而介观物体的电子行为通常需要在量子力学层面进行建模，其样本性质会受到涨落的影响而偏离平均值 。
Mesoscopic physics is a subdiscipline of condensed matter physics that deals with materials of an intermediate size. These materials range in size between the nanoscale for a quantity of atoms (such as a molecule) and of materials measuring micrometres. The lower limit can also be defined as being the size of individual atoms. At the microscopic scale are bulk materials. Both mesoscopic and macroscopic objects contain many atoms. Whereas average properties derived from constituent materials describe macroscopic objects, as they usually obey the laws of classical mechanics, a mesoscopic object, by contrast, is affected by thermal fluctuations around the average, and its electronic behavior may require modeling at the level of quantum mechanics. A macroscopic electronic device, when scaled down to a meso-size, starts revealing quantum mechanical properties. For example, at the macroscopic level the conductance of a wire increases continuously with its diameter.
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查看内容许可 ↗相（phase）亦称相态、物相（phase of matter），是指某种或多种物质呈现某种物质状态时，若该物质或这些物质所占的体积（区域）内的分子均匀分布，则这片区域（体积）就是一个相。例如在玻璃罐中由冰和水组成的物理系统中，冰块是一相，水是一相，水蒸气也是一个相。罐子的玻璃是另一个相。 均相系又称单相系，是一种简单的系统，仅由一相所构成。更复杂的系统可能在某方面不均匀，这类系统称为非均相系或异相系。在做分析时，可以将非均相系统分为几个系统，每个系统都只具有一种相，都是均相系统。例如，经过仔细搅和后的溶液是均相系统，只具有一种相。又例如，在一个装有水和冰块的玻璃杯所组成的非均相系统中，水是一种相、冰块也是一种相，水上方的潮湿空气是另一种相，而玻璃杯又是另外一种相。 相和物质状态有时可以混同，有时可能有所区别，例如多个物质都处于同一物质状态（例如液体）时，可能会存在一种以上彼此不混溶的相（例如水和液态的油的物质状态都是液态，但两者不能互溶，是二个相）。相有时会用来描述由相图上的相边界划分出来的一组平衡状态；在这里，相边界是由像压力、温度一类的状态变数设定。相边界很重要地关联到在它两边的两种相所对比出的性质差异。例如，由液体变成固体、由某一种晶体结构变为另一种晶体结构。
In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and (often) mechanically separable. In a system consisting of ice and water in a glass jar, the ice cubes are one phase, the water is a second phase, and the humid air is a third phase over the ice and water. The glass of the jar is a different material, in its own separate phase. (See state of matter § Glass.) More precisely, a phase is a region of space (a thermodynamic system), throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform. Examples of physical properties include density, index of refraction, magnetization and chemical composition. The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but there can be several immiscible phases of the same state of matter (as where oil and water separate into distinct phases, both in the liquid state).
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查看内容许可 ↗光电导效应或光电导（英语：Photoconductivity）是电磁波入射到物体表面导致其电导率变化的现象，是内光电效应的一种。 当光被诸如半导体的材料吸收时，电子受到足够能量时将越过能隙被激发至导带。半导体内自由的电子和空穴增加，进而导致电导增加。
Photoconductivity is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a material becomes more electrically conductive due to the absorption of electromagnetic radiation such as visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared light, or gamma radiation. When light is absorbed by a material such as a semiconductor, the number of free electrons and holes increases, resulting in increased electrical conductivity. To cause excitation, the light that strikes the semiconductor must have enough energy to raise electrons across the band gap, or to excite the impurities within the band gap. When a bias voltage and a load resistor are used in series with the semiconductor, a voltage drop across the load resistors can be measured when the change in electrical conductivity of the material varies the current through the circuit. Classic examples of photoconductive materials include: photographic film: Kodachrome, Fujifilm, Agfachrome, Ilford, etc., based on silver sulfide and silver bromide.
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查看内容许可 ↗光子晶体是由周期性排列的不同折射率的介质制造的规则光学结构。这种材料因为具有光子带隙而能够阻断特定频率的光子，从而影响光子运动。这种影响类似于半导体晶体对于电子行为的影响。由半导体在电子方面的应用，人们推想可以通过光子晶体制造的器件来控制光子运动，例如制造光子计算机。另外，光子晶体也在自然界中发现。
A photonic crystal is an optical nanostructure in which the refractive index changes periodically. This affects the propagation of light in the same way that the structure of natural crystals gives rise to X-ray diffraction and that the atomic lattices (crystal structure) of semiconductors affect their conductivity of electrons. Photonic crystals occur in nature in the form of structural coloration and animal reflectors, and, as artificially produced, promise to be useful in a range of applications. Photonic crystals can be fabricated for one, two, or three dimensions. One-dimensional photonic crystals can be made of thin film layers deposited on each other. Two-dimensional ones can be made by photolithography, or by drilling holes in a suitable substrate. Fabrication methods for three-dimensional ones include drilling under different angles, stacking multiple 2-D layers on top of each other, direct laser writing, or, for example, instigating self-assembly of spheres in a matrix and dissolving the spheres.
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查看内容许可 ↗理论粒子物理中的粒子物理现象学（英文：particle physics phenomenology）处理有关理论物理在高能粒子实验中的应用。在标准模型的框架内，现象学家为实验计算详细的预测结果，通常要求非常精准（例如需包括辐射修正）。在标准模型外的的框架，现象学家评估新模型的实验结果：如何寻找它们的新粒子、怎样测量模型的参数，以及怎样分辨不同甚至对立的模型。现象学是理论物理中的数学模型（例如不同的量子场论及有关时空结构的理论）与实验粒子物理的一道桥梁。
In physics, phenomenology is the application of theoretical physics to experimental data by making quantitative predictions based upon known theories. It is related to the philosophical notion of phenomenology, in that these predictions describe anticipated behaviors for the phenomena in reality. Phenomenology stands in contrast with experimentation in the scientific method, whose goal is to test a scientific hypothesis instead of making predictions. Phenomenology is commonly applied to the field of particle physics, where it forms a bridge between the mathematical models of theoretical physics (such as quantum field theories and theories of the structure of space-time) and the results of the high-energy particle experiments. It is sometimes used in other fields such as in condensed matter physics and plasma physics, when there are no existing theories for the observed experimental data.
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查看内容许可 ↗皮克林乳液（英语：Pickering emulsion）是由吸附到两相界面的固体微粒（如胶体SiO2）稳定的乳浊液。该现象于1903年由Walter Ramsden首先发现，S.U. Pickering在1907年进一步描述了该现象。如果油和水混合，则小油滴形成并分散于水，最终液滴聚并以降低能量。但是，如果固体粒子被加入到混合物，它们将被结合到界面的表面而防止液滴聚并，从而使乳浊液稳定。 与传统表面活性剂稳定的乳液相比，皮克林乳液具有一定的优势： 可以大大降低乳化剂的用量； 对人体的毒害远小于表面活性剂； 对环境友好； 乳液稳定性强，不易受体系pH值、盐浓度、温度及油相组成等因素的影响。 因此，固体颗粒稳定的乳液在食品、化妆品、医药等领域均有着重要的应用价值。 近年来，基于密封Pickering稳定的乳胶粒子而形成可渗透的壳， 从而得到了一种新型的胶囊粒子，称作colloidosome（译作胶体体）。
A Pickering emulsion, sometimes called Ramsden emulsion, is an emulsion stabilized by solid particles (for example colloidal silica) which adsorb onto the interface between the water and oil phases. Typically, the emulsions are either water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsions, but other more complex systems such as water-in-water, oil-in-oil, water-in-oil-in-water, and oil-in-water-in-oil also do exist.
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查看内容许可 ↗压电光电子效应 是利用在压电半导体材料中施加应变所产生的压电电势来控制在金属-半导体接触或者PN结处载流子的产生，传输，分离以及/或者复合，从而提高光电器件（例如光子探测器、 太阳能电池和发光二极管 ）的性能。佐治亚理工学院的王中林教授于2010年提出了这种效应的基本原理。
Piezo-phototronic effect is a three-way coupling effect of piezoelectric, semiconductor and photonic properties in non-central symmetric semiconductor materials, using the piezoelectric potential (piezopotential) that is generated by applying a strain to a semiconductor with piezoelectricity to control the carrier generation, transport, separation and/or recombination at metal–semiconductor junction or p–n junction for improving the performance of optoelectronic devices, such as photodetector, solar cell and light-emitting diode. Prof. Zhong Lin Wang at Georgia Institute of Technology proposed the fundamental principle of this effect in 2010.
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查看内容许可 ↗相分离是指从单一均质混合物中形成两个独立相的过程。最常见的类型发生于两种不混溶液体之间（如油与水）。胶体可通过相分离形成，但并非所有相分离都会生成胶体——例如油与水在重力作用下可形成分层而非保持悬浮的微小液滴。
Phase separation is the creation of two distinct phases from a single homogeneous mixture. The most common type of phase separation occurs between two immiscible liquids, such as oil and water. This type of phase separation is known as liquid-liquid equilibrium. Colloids are formed by phase separation, though not all phase separations form colloids - for example, oil and water can form separated layers under gravity rather than remaining as microscopic droplets in suspension. A common form of spontaneous phase separation is termed spinodal decomposition; Cahn–Hilliard equation describes it. Regions of a phase diagram in which phase separation occurs are called miscibility gaps. There are two boundary curves of note: the binodal coexistence curve and the spinodal curve. On one side of the binodal, mixtures are absolutely stable. In between the binodal and the spinodal, mixtures may be metastable: staying mixed (or unmixed) in the absence of some large disturbance.
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查看内容许可 ↗顺磁性（Paramagnetism）指的是一种材料的磁性状态。有些材料可以受到外部磁场的影响，产生跟外部磁场同样方向的磁化矢量的特性。这样的物质具有正的磁化率。与顺磁性相反的现象被称为抗磁性。
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby some materials are weakly attracted by an externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields and form induced magnetic fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds; they have a relative magnetic permeability slightly greater than 1 (i.e., a small positive magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect and modern measurements on paramagnetic materials are often conducted with a SQUID magnetometer. Paramagnetism is due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the material, so most atoms with incompletely filled atomic orbitals are paramagnetic, although exceptions such as copper exist.
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查看内容许可 ↗在电磁学里，相对电容率，又称为相对介电常数，定义为电容率与真空电容率的比例∶ ε r = d e f ε ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ {\frac {\varepsilon }{\varepsilon _{0}}}} ； 其中， ε r {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}} 是电介质的相对电容率， ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } 是电介质的电容率， ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} 是真空电容率。
The relative permittivity (in older texts, dielectric constant) is the permittivity of a material expressed as a ratio with the electric permittivity of a vacuum. A dielectric is an insulating material, and the dielectric constant of an insulator measures the ability of the insulator to store electric energy in an electrical field. Permittivity is a material's property that affects the Coulomb force between two point charges in the material. Relative permittivity is the factor by which the electric field between the charges is decreased relative to vacuum. Likewise, relative permittivity is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric, compared with a similar capacitor that has vacuum as its dielectric. Relative permittivity is also commonly known as the dielectric constant, a term still used but deprecated by standards organizations in engineering as well as in chemistry.
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查看内容许可 ↗在电磁学里，介电质响应外电场的施加而电极化的衡量，称为电容率。在非真空中由于介电质被电极化，在物质内部的总电场会减小。电容率关系到介电质传输（或容许）电场的能力。电容率衡量电场怎样影响介电质，怎样被介电质影响。电容率又称为“绝对电容率”。 在国际单位制中，电容率的测量单位是法拉每米（F/m）。真空的电容率，称为真空电容率，或“真空介电常数”，标记为 ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} 。 ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} ≈8.854187817…×10⁻¹² F/m。
In electromagnetism, the absolute permittivity, often simply called permittivity and denoted by the Greek letter ε (epsilon), is a measure of the electric polarizability of a dielectric material. A material with high permittivity polarizes more in response to an applied electric field than a material with low permittivity, thereby storing more energy in the material. In electrostatics, the permittivity plays an important role in determining the capacitance of a capacitor. In the simplest case, the electric displacement field D resulting from an applied electric field E is D = ε E . {\displaystyle \mathbf {D} =\varepsilon \ \mathbf {E} ~.} More generally, the permittivity is a thermodynamic function of state. It can depend on the frequency, magnitude, and direction of the applied field. The SI unit for permittivity is farad per meter (F/m).
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查看内容许可 ↗在经典电磁学里，当给电介质施加一个电场时，由于电介质内部正负电荷的相对位移，会产生电偶极子，这现象称为电极化（英语：electric polarization）。施加的电场可能是外电场，也可能是嵌入电介质内部的自由电荷所产生的电场。因为电极化而产生的电偶极子称为“感应电偶极子”，其电偶极矩称为“感应电偶极矩”。 电极化强度（英语：polarization density），又称为电极化矢量，定义为电介质内的电偶极矩密度，也就是单位体积的电偶极矩。这定义所指的电偶极矩包括永久电偶极矩和感应电偶极矩。它的国际单位制度量单位是库仑每平方米（coulomb/m2），表示为矢量 P。
In classical electromagnetism, polarization density (or electric polarization, or simply polarization) is the vector field that expresses the volumetric density of permanent or induced electric dipole moments in a dielectric material. When a dielectric is placed in an external electric field, its atoms or molecules gain electric dipole moment and the dielectric is said to be polarized. Electric polarization of a given dielectric material sample is defined as the quotient of electric dipole moment (a vector quantity, expressed as coulombs-meters (C⋅m) in SI units) to volume (in meters cubed). Polarization density is denoted mathematically by P; in SI units, it is expressed in coulombs per square meter (C/m2). Polarization density also describes how a material responds to an applied electric field as well as the way the material changes the electric field, and can be used to calculate the forces that result from those interactions. It can be compared to magnetization, which is the measure of the corresponding response of a material to a magnetic field in magnetism.
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查看内容许可 ↗在电磁学中，磁导率是一种材料对一个外加磁场线性反应的磁化程度。磁导率通常用希腊字母μ来表示。该形式由奥利弗·赫维赛德于1885年9月创造使用。 在国际单位制单位中，磁导率的单位是亨利每米（H m-1），或牛顿每安培的平方（N A-2）。常数值 μ 0 {\displaystyle \mu _{0}} 为磁场常数或真空磁导率，并有明确定义 值 μ 0 {\displaystyle \mu _{0}} = 4π×10−7 N·A−2 (≈ 1.2566371×10−6 N·A−2)。
In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of magnetization produced in a material in response to an applied magnetic field. Permeability is typically represented by the (italicized) Greek letter μ. It is the ratio of the magnetic induction B {\displaystyle B} to the magnetizing field H {\displaystyle H} in a material. The term was coined by Lord Kelvin in 1872, and is used alongside its electrostatic equivalent, permittivity, coined by Oliver Heaviside in 1885. The reciprocal of permeability is magnetic reluctivity. In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per meter (H/m), or equivalently in newtons per square ampere (N/A2). The permeability constant μ0, also known as the magnetic constant or the permeability of free space, is the proportionality between magnetic induction and magnetizing force when forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum.
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查看内容许可 ↗断裂力学（Fracture mechanics）是研究含裂纹构件强度与寿命的一门固体力学的新分支，结构损伤容限设计的理论基础。可以分为线弹性断裂力学与弹塑性断裂力学两大类别，前者适用于裂纹尖端附近小范围屈服的情况；而后者适用于裂纹尖端附近大范围屈服的情况。就目前情况而言，弹塑性断裂力学发展很快，但是线弹性断裂力学在结构损伤容限设计中仍然占据重要地位。 在线弹性断裂力学中，最重要的力学参量是应力强度因子，它控制裂纹尖端场附近的应力场和位移场。
Fracture mechanics is the field of mechanics concerned with the study of the propagation of cracks in materials. It uses methods of analytical solid mechanics to calculate the driving force on a crack and those of experimental solid mechanics to characterize the material's resistance to fracture. Theoretically, the stress ahead of a sharp crack tip becomes infinite and cannot be used to describe the state around a crack. Fracture mechanics is used to characterise the loads on a crack, typically using a single parameter to describe the complete loading state at the crack tip. A number of different parameters have been developed. When the plastic zone at the tip of the crack is small relative to the crack length the stress state at the crack tip is the result of elastic forces within the material and is termed linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and can be characterised using the stress intensity factor K {\displaystyle K} . Although the load on a crack can be arbitrary, in 1957 G.
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查看内容许可 ↗隧道磁阻（英语：TMR, Tunnel Magnetoresistance），又称穿隧磁阻，是发生在磁隧道结（MTJ, Magnetic Tunnel Junction）中的磁阻效应，由一个薄绝缘体及被其隔开的两个铁磁体组成的组件。绝缘层足够薄（通常为几纳米）的情况下，电子可以从一个铁磁体隧穿过去另一边。由于这个过程在古典物理学中不可能实现的，所以隧道磁阻是一种严格的量子力学现象。 磁性隧道结通过薄膜技术进行制造。工业规模上的薄膜沉积通过磁控溅射沉积完成；实验室规模通过分子束外延、脉冲激光沉积以及电子束物理气相沉积制备。隧道的结通过光刻法制备。
Tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) is a magnetoresistive effect that occurs in a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ), which is a component consisting of two ferromagnets separated by a thin insulator. If the insulating layer is thin enough (typically a few nanometres), electrons can tunnel from one ferromagnet into the other. Since this process is forbidden in classical physics, the tunnel magnetoresistance is a strictly quantum-mechanical phenomenon and lies in the study of spintronics. Magnetic tunnel junctions are manufactured in thin-film technology. On an industrial scale the film deposition is done by magnetron sputter deposition; on a laboratory scale molecular-beam epitaxy, pulsed laser deposition and electron-beam physical vapor deposition are also utilized. The junctions are prepared by photolithography.
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查看内容许可 ↗温度系数（temperature coefficient）是指在温度变化1K时，特定物理量的相对变化。 以下的公式中，R为特定的物理量，T为量测物理量时的温度，T0为参考温度，ΔT为量测温度及参考温度的温度差，α为（线性）温度系数。则物理量可以用以下公式表示： R ( T ) = R ( T 0 ) ( 1 + α Δ T ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {R} (T)=\operatorname {R} (T_{0})(1+\alpha \Delta T)} 此处α的量纲为温度的倒数（1/K或K−1）。 以上式子的物理量和温度成线性关系，若物理量和温度的多项式或对数成正比，也可以在一定温度范围内计算温度系数，近似此范围内的物理量变化。若物理量是随温度指数增长或指数衰减（例如阿伦尼乌斯方程），只能在一个很小的温度范围内计算温度系数。 温度系数会随应用领域的不同而不同，例如核能、电子学或磁学均有其温度系数。物体的弹性模量也会随温度而变化，一般弹性模量会随温度升高而下降。
A temperature coefficient describes the relative change of a physical property that is associated with a given change in temperature. For a property R that changes when the temperature changes by dT, the temperature coefficient α is defined by the equation below: d R R = α d T {\displaystyle {\frac {dR}{R}}=\alpha \,dT} Here α has the dimension of an inverse temperature and can be expressed e.g. in 1/K or K−1.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在物理学里，感受到外电场的作用，中性原子或分子会改变其正常电子云形状，衡量这改变的物理量称为极化性（polarizability）。以方程表达， p = α E {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\alpha \mathbf {E} } ； 其中， p {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} } 是由于电子云形状的改变而产生的电偶极矩， α {\displaystyle \alpha } 是极化性， E {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } 是外电场。
Polarizability usually refers to the tendency of matter, when subjected to an electric field, to acquire an electric dipole moment in proportion to that applied field. It is a property of particles with an electric charge. When subject to an electric field, the negatively charged electrons and positively charged atomic nuclei are subject to opposite forces and undergo charge separation. Polarizability is responsible for a material's dielectric constant and, at high (optical) frequencies, its refractive index. The polarizability of an atom or molecule is defined as the ratio of its induced dipole moment to the local electric field; in a crystalline solid, one considers the dipole moment per unit cell. Note that the local electric field seen by a molecule is generally different from the macroscopic electric field that would be measured externally.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗原子核磁矩是质子和中子固有的磁矩，分别记为μp和μn。原子核由质子和中子组成，这两种核子都表现出类似微小磁体的特性。中子的磁矩以及质子磁矩的巨大数值表明，核子并非基本粒子。它们的磁性强弱通过磁矩来度量。核子通过核力或其磁矩与常规物质发生相互作用，而带正电的质子还会额外通过库仑力参与相互作用。 质子的磁矩于1933年由汉堡大学的奥托·施特恩团队测得。虽然中子的磁矩在20世纪30年代中期通过间接方法被确定，但路易斯·阿尔瓦雷茨和费利克斯·布洛赫在1940年首次直接测得中子的磁矩。
The nucleon magnetic moments are the intrinsic magnetic dipole moments of the proton and neutron, symbols μp and μn . The nucleus of an atom comprises protons and neutrons, both nucleons that behave as small magnets. Their magnetic strengths are measured by their magnetic moments. The nucleons interact with normal matter through either the nuclear force or their magnetic moments, with the charged proton also interacting by the Coulomb force. The proton's magnetic moment was directly measured in 1933 by Otto Stern team in University of Hamburg. While the neutron was determined to have a magnetic moment by indirect methods in the mid-1930s, Luis Alvarez and Felix Bloch made the first accurate, direct measurement of the neutron's magnetic moment in 1940. The proton's magnetic moment is exploited to make measurements of molecules by proton nuclear magnetic resonance. The neutron's magnetic moment is exploited to probe the atomic structure of materials using scattering methods and to manipulate the properties of neutron beams in particle accelerators.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在晶体学中，堆垛层错是晶体材料中可能出现的平面缺陷。晶体材料形成原子层的重复图案。这些层的顺序可能会出现错误，称为堆垛层错。堆垛层错处于较高的能量状态，该状态通过单位面积的形成焓（称为堆垛层错能量）来量化。堆垛层错可能在晶体生长过程中或塑性变形过程中出现。此外，低堆垛层错能材料中的位错通常解离成扩展位错，这是由部分位错界定的堆垛层错。堆垛层错最常见的例子是在密排晶体结构中发现的。
In crystallography, a stacking fault is a planar defect that can occur in crystalline materials. Crystalline materials form repeating patterns of layers of atoms. Errors can occur in the sequence of these layers and are known as stacking faults. Stacking faults are in a higher energy state which is quantified by the formation enthalpy per unit area called the stacking-fault energy. Stacking faults can arise during crystal growth or from plastic deformation. In addition, dislocations in low stacking-fault energy materials typically dissociate into an extended dislocation, which is a stacking fault bounded by partial dislocations. The most common example of stacking faults is found in close-packed crystal structures.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗旋节线分解是一种单一热力学相自发分离成两相（无成核）的机制。当不存在相分离的热力学势垒时，就会发生分解。因此，通过分解进行相分离不需要由热力学波动引起的成核事件，而热力学波动通常会引发相分离。当金属或聚合物的混合物分离成两个共存相，每个相富含一种物质而缺乏另一种物质时，就会观察到旋节线分解。当两相以大致相等的比例出现时（每一相占据大约相同的体积或面积），就会形成特征性的交织结构，并逐渐变粗（参见动画）。旋节线分解的动力学通常使用 Cahn-Hilliard 方程进行建模。
Spinodal decomposition is a mechanism by which a single thermodynamic phase spontaneously separates into two phases (without nucleation). Decomposition occurs when there is no thermodynamic barrier to phase separation. As a result, phase separation via decomposition does not require the nucleation events resulting from thermodynamic fluctuations, which normally trigger phase separation. Spinodal decomposition is observed when mixtures of metals or polymers separate into two co-existing phases, each rich in one species and poor in the other. When the two phases emerge in approximately equal proportion (each occupying about the same volume or area), characteristic intertwined structures are formed that gradually coarsen (see animation). The dynamics of spinodal decomposition is commonly modeled using the Cahn–Hilliard equation.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在热力学中，混合焓（也称为混合热和过量焓）是混合时物质释放或吸收的焓。当一种物质或化合物与任何其他物质或化合物结合时，混合的焓是两种物质或化合物之间新的相互作用的结果。如果放热释放热量，在极端情况下可能会引起爆炸。在存在其他热项或混合物理想的情况下，在计算混合物时通常可以忽略混合焓。其符号约定与反应函相同：当混合函为正时，混合是吸热的；当混合函为负时，表示混合是放热的。在理想混合物中，混合焓为零。
In thermodynamics, the enthalpy of mixing (also heat of mixing and excess enthalpy) is the enthalpy liberated or absorbed from a substance upon mixing. When a substance or compound is combined with any other substance or compound, the enthalpy of mixing is the consequence of the new interactions between the two substances or compounds. This enthalpy, if released exothermically, can in an extreme case cause an explosion. Enthalpy of mixing can often be ignored in calculations for mixtures where other heat terms exist, or in cases where the mixture is ideal. The sign convention is the same as for enthalpy of reaction: when the enthalpy of mixing is positive, mixing is endothermic, while negative enthalpy of mixing signifies exothermic mixing. In ideal mixtures, the enthalpy of mixing is null.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗CALPHAD 代表 PHAse 图计算，这是 Larry Kaufman 于 1970 年引入的一种方法。平衡相图通常是带有化学系统温度和成分轴的图。它显示了物质或溶液（即相）稳定的区域以及其中两种或多种共存的区域。相图是预测不同条件下系统状态的非常强大的工具，最初是一种合理化平衡状态实验信息的图形方法。在复杂系统中，采用 CALPHAD 等计算方法对每个相的热力学性质进行建模并模拟多组分相行为。
CALPHAD stands for CALculation of PHAse Diagrams, a methodology introduced in 1970 by Larry Kaufman. An equilibrium phase diagram is usually a diagram with axes for temperature and composition of a chemical system. It shows the regions where substances or solutions (i.e. phases) are stable and regions where two or more of them coexist. Phase diagrams are a very powerful tool for predicting the state of a system under different conditions and were initially a graphical method to rationalize experimental information on states of equilibrium. In complex systems, computational methods such as CALPHAD are employed to model thermodynamic properties for each phase and simulate multicomponent phase behavior.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗密度泛函理论 (DFT) 是一种计算量子力学建模方法，用于物理、化学和材料科学，用于研究多体系统（特别是原子、分子和凝聚相）的电子结构（或核结构）（主要是基态）。利用这一理论，多电子系统的属性可以通过使用泛函来确定，即接受函数作为输入并输出单个实数的函数。就 DFT 而言，这些是空间相关电子密度的函数。 DFT 是凝聚态物理、计算物理和计算化学领域最流行、最通用的方法之一。自 20 世纪 70 年代以来，DFT 在固体物理计算中一直非常流行。
Density functional theory (DFT) is a computational quantum mechanical modeling method used in physics, chemistry and materials science to investigate the electronic structure (or nuclear structure) (principally the ground state) of many-body systems, in particular atoms, molecules, and the condensed phases. Using this theory, the properties of a many-electron system can be determined by using functionals – that is, functions that accept a function as input and output a single real number. In the case of DFT, these are functionals of the spatially dependent electron density. DFT is among the most popular and versatile methods available in condensed-matter physics, computational physics, and computational chemistry. DFT has been very popular for calculations in solid-state physics since the 1970s.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在固态物理学和固态化学中，带隙，也称为带隙或能隙，是固体中不存在电子态的能量范围。在固体的电子能带结构图中，带隙是指绝缘体和半导体中价带顶部和导带底部之间的能量差（通常以电子伏特表示）。它是将电子从价带提升到导带所需的能量。由此产生的导带电子（以及价带中的电子空穴）可以在晶格内自由移动，并充当载流子来传导电流。它与化学中的HOMO-LUMO能隙密切相关。
In solid-state physics and solid-state chemistry, a band gap, also called a bandgap or energy gap, is an energy range in a solid where no electronic states exist. In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the band gap refers to the energy difference (often expressed in electronvolts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in insulators and semiconductors. It is the energy required to promote an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. The resulting conduction-band electron (and the electron hole in the valence band) are free to move within the crystal lattice and serve as charge carriers to conduct electric current. It is closely related to the HOMO–LUMO gap in chemistry.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在凝聚态物理学中，系统的态密度 (DOS) 描述了每单位能量范围允许的模式或状态的数量。态密度定义为 D ( E ) = N ( E ) / V {\displaystyle D(E)=N(E)/V} ，其中 N ( E ) δ E {\displaystyle N(E)\delta E} 是体积 V {\displaystyle V} 系统中的态数，其能量范围为 E {\displaystyle E} 到 E + δ E {\displaystyle E+\delta E} 。它在数学上表示为概率密度函数的分布，通常是系统所占据的各种状态的空间和时间域上的平均值。
In condensed matter physics, the density of states (DOS) of a system describes the number of allowed modes or states per unit energy range. The density of states is defined as D ( E ) = N ( E ) / V {\displaystyle D(E)=N(E)/V} , where N ( E ) δ E {\displaystyle N(E)\delta E} is the number of states in the system of volume V {\displaystyle V} whose energies lie in the range from E {\displaystyle E} to E + δ E {\displaystyle E+\delta E} . It is mathematically represented as a distribution by a probability density function, and it is generally an average over the space and time domains of the various states occupied by the system.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗固态体的费米能级是向该体添加一个电子所需的热力学功。为简洁起见，它是一个热力学量，通常用 μ 或 EF 表示。费米能级不包括将电子从其来源处移走所需的功。费米能级的概念是用于确定电子特性的电子能带结构模型的重要组成部分，特别是因为它与电子电路中的电压和电荷流动有关。在固态物理学中用于分析固体能级的能带结构理论中，费米能级可以被认为是电子的假设能级，因此在热力学平衡时，该能级在任何给定时间都有 50% 的概率被占据。
The Fermi level of a solid-state body is the thermodynamic work required to add one electron to the body. It is a thermodynamic quantity usually denoted by μ or EF for brevity. The Fermi level does not include the work required to remove the electron from wherever it came from. The concept of the Fermi level is an important component of the electronic band structure model for determining electronic properties, especially as it relates to the voltage and flow of charge in electronic circuits. In band structure theory, used in solid state physics to analyze the energy levels in a solid, the Fermi level can be considered to be a hypothetical energy level of an electron, such that at thermodynamic equilibrium this energy level would have a 50% probability of being occupied at any given time.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗声子是凝聚态物质（特别是固体和某些液体）中原子或分子周期性弹性排列的准粒子集体激发。在光学捕获物体的背景下，只要振荡的模态波长小于物体的尺寸，量子化振动模式就可以定义为声子。声子是物理学中的一种准粒子，是相互作用粒子的弹性结构的振动模式的量子力学量子化中的激发态。声子可以被认为是量子化的声波，类似于光子被认为是量子化的光波。声子的研究是凝聚态物理的重要组成部分。
A phonon is a quasiparticle, collective excitation in a periodic, elastic arrangement of atoms or molecules in condensed matter, specifically in solids and some liquids. In the context of optically trapped objects, the quantized vibration mode can be defined as phonons as long as the modal wavelength of the oscillation is smaller than the size of the object. A type of quasiparticle in physics, a phonon is an excited state in the quantum mechanical quantization of the modes of vibrations for elastic structures of interacting particles. Phonons can be thought of as quantized sound waves, similar to photons as quantized light waves. The study of phonons is an important part of condensed matter physics.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
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