材料与晶体Polymer engineering聚合物工程（英语：polymer engineering）是一个主要针对聚合物材料进行设计、分析或改良的工程学领域。聚合物工程涵盖了石化工业、聚合反应、结构与性质以及混掺、加工与应用等面向。
Polymer engineering is generally an engineering field that designs, analyses, and modifies polymer materials. Polymer engineering covers aspects of the petrochemical industry, polymerization, structure and characterization of polymers, properties of polymers, compounding and processing of polymers and description of major polymers, structure property relations and applications.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗聚乙烯亚胺（PEI, Polyethyleneimine 或polyaziridine），分为线性和分枝状两种，线性聚乙烯亚胺包含的全是仲胺，而分枝状聚乙烯亚胺中有伯胺、仲胺和叔胺基。任何分子量的线性聚乙烯亚胺在常温下是固体，而分枝状聚乙烯亚胺是液体。线性PEI可溶于热水中或低pH的甲醇、乙醇或氯仿中，但不溶于冷水、苯、乙醚和丙酮；聚合物链的一端是甲基，另一端是氨基；熔点为73－75℃；可贮存在室温中。
Polyethylenimine (PEI) or polyaziridine is a polymer with repeating units composed of the amine group and two carbon aliphatic CH2CH2 spacers. Linear polyethyleneimines contain all secondary amines, in contrast to branched PEIs which contain primary, secondary and tertiary amino groups. Totally branched, dendrimeric forms were also reported. PEI is produced on an industrial scale and finds many applications usually derived from its polycationic character.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗高分子结晶（crystallization of polymers）是高分子链部分排列起来的过程，在此过程中，高分子链折叠起来，形成有序的区域，这样的区域成为片晶，片晶可堆砌成更大的球形结构，称为球晶。高分子可从熔体冷却结晶，也可通过机械拉伸或溶剂蒸发结晶。结晶影响高分子材料的光学、力学、热和化学性质。结晶度可通过多种分析方法测定，一般在10%到80%之间，因此，结晶高分子常被称之为半结晶高分子。结晶高分子的性质除了通过结晶度表征，还通过分子链的折叠大小和取向表征。
Crystallization of polymers is a process associated with partial alignment of their molecular chains. These chains fold together and form ordered regions called lamellae, which compose larger spheroidal structures named spherulites. Polymers can crystallize upon cooling from melting, mechanical stretching or solvent evaporation. Crystallization affects optical, mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of the polymer. The degree of crystallinity is estimated by different analytical methods and it typically ranges between 10 and 80%, with crystallized polymers often called "semi-crystalline". The properties of semi-crystalline polymers are determined not only by the degree of crystallinity, but also by the size and orientation of the molecular chains.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗塑料分类标志（resin identification code）或称合成树脂识认码、塑料材质编号、塑料材料编码与塑料编码，是美国塑料工业协会于1988年所发展出来的分类编码方式。 绝大多数的塑料皆可回收，但需要因它们不同的聚合物种类而分类。由于挑选、搜集、清洁与再加工的困难性和昂贵的价格，目前经济上只能够应付回收聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯（PET）与高密度聚乙烯（High-density polyethylene，HDPE）。聚氯乙烯宣称可以被回收，但事实上它不是单一材料，而是广泛含有各类有毒的添加物来应用在不同的用途上。（备注：现在各种添加剂已经有无毒的配方，取代过去所使用的含重金属与环境贺尔蒙之添加物。）热塑性塑料可以重新加热熔塑，但是热固性塑料只能够压碎当作绝缘物。 塑料分类标志的符号包含了顺时针转的箭头，形成一个完整的三角形，并将编码包围于其中。通常在三角形之下会标上代表塑料材料的缩写。当该标志的编码被省略时，这个符号就变成通用的循环再造标志，用来指称一般可回收的材料。在这个状况下，其他的文字与标记将用来指称使用过的材料。 使用循环再造标志加上塑料材料编码持续地使得消费者误以为这些塑料是可以被迅速地回收的。在美国大多数的社区中，在重复利用与资源回收计划里只有聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯与高密度聚乙烯（High-density polyethylene，HDPE）是可以被收集的。但有一些地区，如市场，则是增加可以收集的塑料种类范围。 在被误解的传闻中，塑料材料编码的数字曾被错误地代表这个材料被回收的难度或代表这个材料被回收的频率。 Unicode的编码标准也包括了塑料分类标志，编码自U+2673至U+2679♳♴♵♶♷♸♹。而其基础的循环再造标志则被编码为U+267A♺。 注意，中华人民共和国推荐性标准给出了140种塑料代号，前6种与塑料分类标志相同。数值比7大的标志，因为塑料分类标志属于国际通用资源回收编码，所以不再表示塑料，而表示其它材料。
A resin identification code (RIC) is a symbol embedded on plastic products, used to sort plastic waste for recycling. They consist of an equilateral triangle with a number inside indicating the product's resin content. These symbols were created in 1988 by the Plastics Industry Association in the United States, amid growing concerns about plastic pollution. Since 2008, they are administrated by the ASTM and comprise the technical standard D7611/D7611M-26 "Standard Practice for Coding Plastic Manufactured Articles for Resin Identification". The European Commission Decision 97/129/EC "Identification System For Packaging Materials" extends this system with recycling codes for other materials like batteries, paper, and glass. Despite their similarity to the recycling symbol, resin codes do not indicate whether a product is recyclable. They are frequently misinterpreted by consumers, and contribute to wishcycling (the contamination of recycling bins with unrecyclable goods).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗聚乙烯醇（Polyvinyl alcohol, PVA）是一种用途广泛的水溶性高分子聚合物，其性能介于塑料和橡胶之间。
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH, PVA, or PVAl) is a water-soluble synthetic polymer. It has the idealized formula [CH2CH(OH)]n. It is used in papermaking, textile warp sizing, as a thickener and emulsion stabilizer in polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesive formulations, in a variety of coatings, and 3D printing. It is colourless (white) and odorless. It is commonly supplied as beads or as solutions in water. Without an externally added crosslinking agent, PVA solution can be gelled through repeated freezing-thawing, yielding highly strong, ultrapure, biocompatible hydrogels which have been used for a variety of applications, such as vascular stents, cartilages, contact lenses, etc. Although polyvinyl alcohol is often referred to by the acronym PVA, more generally PVA refers to polyvinyl acetate, which is commonly used as a wood adhesive and sealer.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗质子交换膜（proton exchange membrane），或称高分子电解质膜（polymer electrolyte membrane；二者均简称PEM），是一种离子聚合物的半透膜，设计用于质子传导隔绝氧或氢。主要应用于质子交换膜燃料电池的膜电极组（MEA），分离反应物及传导质子。 PEM材质可由纯聚合物膜或复合膜制作。最常见的和市售的质子交换膜的材料是全氟磺酸的含氟聚合物（PFSA），杜邦产品。Nafion是与像聚四氟乙烯全氟化主链的离聚物，有用于制造质子交换膜的离聚物许多其他的结构基序。许多使用多环芳烃聚合物而其他人使用部分氟化聚合物。 质子交换膜是主要特性质子传导率（σ）、甲醇渗透率（P），和热稳定性。
A proton-exchange membrane, or polymer-electrolyte membrane (PEM), is a semipermeable membrane generally made from ionomers and designed to conduct protons while acting as an electronic insulator and reactant barrier, e.g. to oxygen and hydrogen gas. This is their essential function when incorporated into a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell or of a proton-exchange membrane electrolyser: separation of reactants and transport of protons while blocking a direct electronic pathway through the membrane. PEMs can be made from either pure polymer membranes or from composite membranes, where other materials are embedded in a polymer matrix. One of the most common and commercially available PEM materials is the fluoropolymer (PFSA) Nafion, a DuPont product. While Nafion is an ionomer with a perfluorinated backbone like Teflon, there are many other structural motifs used to make ionomers for proton-exchange membranes. Many use polyaromatic polymers, while others use partially fluorinated polymers.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗聚砜（英语：polysulfone）指的是结构中有烃基-SO2-烃基结构单元的一类热塑性聚合物材料。这类聚合物材料以其良好的韧性和高温下的稳定性闻名。1965年，美国联合碳化物首先将聚砜生产工业化，由于原材料成本较高，加工较难，聚砜一般用于对材料要求十分苛刻的用途，也是聚碳酸酯的高级代用品。
Polysulfones are a family of high-performance thermoplastics. These polymers are known for their toughness and stability at high temperatures. Technically used polysulfones contain an aryl-SO2-aryl subunit. Due to the high cost of raw materials and processing, polysulfones are used in specialty applications and often are a superior replacement for polycarbonates. Three polysulfones are used industrially: polysulfone (PSU), polyethersulfone (PES/PESU), and polyphenylsulfone (PPSU). They can be used at temperature of −100–200 °C (−148–392 °F) and are used for electrical equipment, vehicle construction, and medical technology. They are composed of para-linked aromatics, sulfonyl groups, and ether groups and partly also alkyl groups. Polysulfones have outstanding resistance to heat, oxidation, hydrolysis, aqueous media, and alkaline media, and they have good electrical properties.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗隔膜是置于电池阳极和阴极之间的可渗透膜。隔膜的主要功能是将两个电极分开，防止电气短路，同时允许离子载流子的传输，以便在电化电池中电流通过时闭合电路。 隔膜是液态电解质电池中的关键组件。隔膜通常由形成微孔层的聚合物膜构成。它必须对电解质和电极材料具有化学和电化学稳定性，并且机械强度足够，能够承受电池组装过程中产生的高张力。隔膜对电池非常重要，因为其结构和性能会显著影响电池的性能，包括电池的能量和功率密度、循环寿命和安全性。
A separator is a permeable membrane placed between a battery's anode and cathode. The main function of a separator is to keep the two electrodes apart to prevent electrical short circuits while also allowing the transport of ionic charge carriers that are needed to close the circuit during the passage of current in an electrochemical cell. Separators are critical components in liquid electrolyte batteries. A separator generally consists of a polymeric membrane forming a microporous layer. It must be chemically and electrochemically stable with regard to the electrolyte and electrode materials and mechanically strong enough to withstand the high tension during battery construction. They are important to batteries because their structure and properties considerably affect the battery performance, including the batteries energy and power densities, cycle life, and safety.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗陶瓷前驱体聚合物，是指可在适当条件下（通常在缺氧环境中）通过热解转化为具有高热稳定性和化学稳定性的陶瓷化合物的高分子化合物。由陶瓷前驱体聚合物的热解产生的陶瓷被称为聚合物衍生陶瓷（简称PDC）。这些聚合物衍生陶瓷通常基于硅，包括碳化硅、碳氧化硅、氮化硅和氮氧化硅。这类PDC 常为非晶态，缺乏长程晶体有序。 陶瓷前驱体聚合物和聚合物衍生陶瓷领域总体上源于航空航天工业对纤维增强陶瓷／陶瓷复合材料等耐热隔热材料的需求。使用陶瓷前驱体聚合物相较于传统陶瓷加工方法具有多样化的成型技术。例如纤维纺丝、薄膜铸造以及复杂形状的模具成型。常用的陶瓷前驱体聚合物包括聚碳硅烷和聚硅氧烷，它们通过热解分别转化为碳化硅和SiOC型陶瓷。 一种低成本制备复杂三维陶瓷零件的方法是使用增材制造（AM）通过两步工艺：先打印出聚合物制品，然后通过热解将其转化为聚合物衍生陶瓷（PDC）。该工艺可应用于基于熔融沉积成型（FFF）的三维打印，以制造全密实的蜂窝结构，这些结构可用作骨再生支架，需具备机械稳定性并具有互联孔隙的三维结构。其他兼容此策略的三维打印技术（如立体光刻造型、数字光处理和多光子光刻）已有广泛研究。例如，通过光聚合方法，陶瓷前驱体聚合物可用于立体光刻，实现复杂形状陶瓷件的增材制造。在此类工艺中，通过辐照驱动的交联，液态陶瓷前驱体聚合物转变为刚性热固性聚合物，在随后的热解过程中保持形状，并转化为玻璃态陶瓷产物。
The term preceramic polymer refers to one of various polymeric compounds, which through pyrolysis under appropriate conditions (generally in the absence of oxygen) are converted to ceramic compounds, having high thermal and chemical stability. Ceramics resulting from the pyrolysis of preceramic polymers are known as polymer derived ceramics, or PDCs. Polymer derived ceramics are most often silicon based and include silicon carbide, silicon oxycarbide, silicon nitride and silicon oxynitride. Such PDCs are most commonly amorphous, lacking long-range crystalline order. The field of preceramic polymers and polymer derived ceramics in general emerged from the requirements in aerospace industries for heat shield materials such as fiber reinforced ceramic / ceramic composite materials. The use of preceramic polymers allows for diverse processing techniques relative to conventional ceramic processing. For example, the spinning of fibres, casting of thin films and the molding of complex shapes.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗氮化硼是一种由相同数量的氮原子（N）和硼原子（B）组成的二元化合物，其实验式是BN。氮化硼和碳是等电子的，并和碳一样，氮化硼有多种同质异形体，其中六方氮化硼（α-BN）结构则类似于石墨，是一种十分实用的润滑剂，立方氮化硼（β-BN）结构类似于钻石，硬度仅低于金刚石，但耐高温性优于金刚石。
Boron nitride is a thermally and chemically resistant refractory compound of boron and nitrogen with the chemical formula BN. It exists in various crystalline forms that are isoelectronic to a similarly structured carbon lattice. The hexagonal form corresponding to graphite is the most stable and soft among BN polymorphs, and is therefore used as a lubricant and an additive to cosmetic products. The cubic (zincblende aka sphalerite structure) variety analogous to diamond is called c-BN; it is softer than diamond, but its thermal and chemical stability are superior. Because of excellent thermal and chemical stability, boron nitride ceramics are used in high-temperature equipment and metal casting. Boron nitride has potential use in nanotechnology.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗氧化铝（英语：Aluminium oxide），是铝和氧的化合物，分子式为Al2O3。在矿业、制陶业和材料科学上又称为矾土。常见纯度为99.5%和96%。
Aluminium oxide (also aluminium(III) oxide), commonly called alumina, is an inorganic compound of aluminium and oxygen with the chemical formula Al2O3. At ambient conditions, its thermodynamically stable crystalline form is α-Al2O3, which has the corundum structure. Gem-quality corundum forms rubies and sapphires. Aluminium oxide also occurs in several metastable crystalline forms, commonly called transition aluminas. Corundum is hard, alumina ceramics are electrical insulators, and aluminium oxide is amphoteric, reacting with both acids and bases. Industrial alumina is extracted from bauxite by the Bayer process, and most alumina is used as feedstock for aluminium production in the Hall–Héroult process. Other important uses include refractory and engineering ceramics, abrasives and polishing materials, catalysts and catalyst supports, adsorbents, electronic and optical materials, protective coatings and effect pigments, and components of glasses and polymer composites.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗骨瓷（英语：bone china）又称骨质瓷，在烧制的瓷泥中添加了动物骨灰（猪、牛骨），以改善瓷器的玻化及透光度。 骨瓷是一种低温软性瓷，无法手工拉制，只能用模具旋制或注浆等工法生产。换言之，骨瓷必须批量生产，少量个别生产成本太高。
Bone china is a type of vitreous, translucent pottery, the raw materials for which include bone ash, feldspathic material and kaolin. It has been defined as "ware with a translucent body" containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from calcined animal bone or calcium phosphate. Bone china is amongst the strongest of whiteware ceramics, and is known for its high levels of whiteness and translucency. Its high strength allows it to be produced in thinner cross-sections than other types of whiteware. Like stoneware, it is vitrified, but is translucent due to differing mineral properties. In the mid-18th century, English potters had not succeeded in making hard-paste porcelain (as made in East Asia and Meissen porcelain), but found bone ash a useful addition to their soft-paste porcelain mixtures. This became standard at the Bow porcelain factory in London (operating from around 1747), and spread to some other English factories. The modern product was developed by the Staffordshire potter Josiah Spode in the early 1790s.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗氧化铍(英语：Beryllium oxide，简称BeO)是一种结晶状的氧化物，它可以直接从燃烧铍化合物或铍获得。它跟氧化铝一样都是很好的抗火材料，经过烧结的氧化铍非常的坚硬，有陶瓷的特性。氧化铍非常稳定，但如果跟氟化氢铵或硫酸一起加热就轻易被分解。
Beryllium oxide (BeO), also known as beryllia, is an inorganic compound with the formula BeO. This colourless solid is an electrical insulator with a higher thermal conductivity than any other non-metal except diamond, and exceeds that of most metals. As an amorphous solid, beryllium oxide is white. Its high melting point leads to its use as a refractory material. It occurs in nature as the mineral bromellite. Historically and in materials science, beryllium oxide was called glucina or glucinium oxide, owing to its sweet taste.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗钛酸钡是钡和钛的混合氧化物，也称偏钛酸钡，化学式为BaTiO3。钛酸钡是一个铁电陶瓷材料，有光折射效应及压电性质。其固态时可有五种晶体结构，温度从高到低依次为：六方、等轴、四方、斜方及三方晶系。除等轴外，其余的结构都呈现铁电性。
Barium titanate (BTO) is an inorganic compound with chemical formula BaTiO3. It is the barium salt of metatitanic acid. Barium titanate appears white as a powder and is transparent when prepared as large crystals. It is a ferroelectric, pyroelectric, and piezoelectric ceramic material that exhibits the photorefractive effect. It is used in capacitors, electromechanical transducers and nonlinear optics.
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查看内容许可 ↗铋锶钙铜氧或铋锶钙铜氧化物（英语：Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide，BSCCO）是一种铜氧超导体材料，化学式为Bi2Sr2Can−1CunO2n+4+x，其中最常见的为n=2，n=1和3也研究得较多。BSCCO于1988年发现，是发现的第一种无稀土元素的高温超导体。 BSCCO作为一种铜氧超导体，其具有二维层状结构（钙钛矿结构），其超导性质发生在Cu-O平面。BSCCO连同钇钡铜氧（YBCO）是研究最多的两种铜氧超导体。 BSCCO的命名常用Bi加上代表化学式中金属原子个数的序列表示。如Bi-2201代表Bi2Sr2CuO6+x（n=1）；Bi-2212代表Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x（n=2）；Bi-2223代表Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+x（n=3）。 BSCCO与铊钡钙铜氧族（TBCCO，Tl2Ba2Can−1CunO2n+4+x）和汞钡钙铜氧族（HBCCO，HgBa2Can−1CunO2n+2+x）超温超导体相似。而且其超导临界温度Tc随n先增加后下降。如Bi-2201 Tc ≈ 33 K；Bi-2212 Tc ≈ 96 K；Bi-2223 Tc ≈ 108 K； Bi-2234 Tc ≈ 104 K。但最后一种很难合成。
Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO, pronounced ), is a type of cuprate superconductor having the generalized chemical formula Bi2Sr2Can−1CunO2n+4+x, with n = 2 being the most commonly studied compound (though n = 1 and n = 3 have also received significant attention). Discovered as a general class in 1988, BSCCO was the first high-temperature superconductor which did not contain a rare-earth element. It is a cuprate superconductor, an important category of high-temperature superconductors sharing a two-dimensional layered (perovskite) structure (see figure at right) with superconductivity taking place in a copper-oxide plane. BSCCO and yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) are the most studied cuprate superconductors. Specific types of BSCCO are usually referred to using the sequence of the numbers of the metallic ions. Thus Bi-2201 is the n = 1 compound (Bi2Sr2CuO6+x), Bi-2212 is the n = 2 compound (Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x), and Bi-2223 is the n = 3 compound (Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+x).
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查看内容许可 ↗热氧化是硅的一种改变表面特性的工艺，在这一过程中于硅衬底（例如硅晶圆）或由硅构成的局部结构表面生成一层薄的非晶二氧化硅。该工艺在半导体技术中用于制造微电子电路等。该过程基于氧气向硅中扩散并在约1100 °C以上与硅发生化学反应。该工艺时间非常短，也称为“快速热氧化”（Rapid Thermal Oxidation，RTO），用于制备非常薄的二氧化硅层（<2 nm）。类似的工艺还有在高温下在硅衬底上生长热氮化硅薄层。
In microfabrication, thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide (usually silicon dioxide) on the surface of a wafer. The technique forces an oxidizing agent to diffuse into the wafer at high temperature and react with it. The rate of oxide growth is often predicted by the Deal–Grove model. Thermal oxidation may be applied to different materials, but most commonly involves the oxidation of silicon substrates to produce silicon dioxide.
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查看内容许可 ↗二硒化钽是一种无机化合物，化学式为TaSe2。它可由钽和硒按化学计量比在750 °C反应制得，或通过五氯化钽和硒的反应得到。它比二硒化钨在空气中更容易氧化。
Tantalum diselenide is a compound made with tantalum and selenium atoms, with chemical formula TaSe2, which belongs to the family of transition metal dichalcogenides. In contrast to molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) or rhenium disulfide (ReS2), tantalum diselenide does not occur spontaneously in nature, but it can be synthesized. Depending on the growth parameters, different types of crystal structures can be stabilized. In the 2010s, interest in this compound has risen due to its ability to show a charge density wave (CDW), which depends on the crystal structure, up to 600 K (327 °C), while other transition metal dichalcogenides normally need to be cooled down to hundreds of kelvins or even below to observe the same capability.
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查看内容许可 ↗土器又称瓦器，为烧制时无玻璃化、质地软的粗陶瓷。有的施釉、有的不施釉，通常低于1200°C烧制。 土器的概念涵盖所有原始陶器、兵马俑、建筑砖，以及17世纪前的欧洲陶器，我们今天使用大部分的餐具也属于细土器。最早的窑可以追溯到公元前29,000–25 000年。中国在新石器文化期开始使用窑来烧制土器。
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids by coating it with a ceramic glaze, and such a process is used for the great majority of modern domestic earthenware. The main other important types of pottery are porcelain, bone china, and stoneware, all fired at high enough temperatures to vitrify. End applications include tableware and decorative ware such as figurines. Earthenware comprises "most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which forms the greater part of our tableware today" ("today" being 1962).
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查看内容许可 ↗科德石（又名 Lithodipyra 或 Lithodipra 古希腊语 λίθος/δίς/πυρά 直译：烧制两次的石头 ) 是一种炻器，在 18 世纪末和 19 世纪初经常被描述为人造石。它被用来塑造新古典主义雕像、建筑装饰和最高品质的花园装饰品，至今仍然不被风雨侵蚀。 乔治三世和摄政王定制了科德石，用以温莎圣乔治教堂、布莱顿皇家穹顶宫、伦敦卡尔顿宫、格林威治皇家海军学院和白金汉宫的整修工程，并在19世纪20年代对其进行了雕刻。 科德石受到许多重要建筑师的青睐，如：白金汉宫的约翰·纳什、英格兰银行的约翰·索恩爵士、肯伍德宫的罗伯特·亚当和雷德克里夫天文台的詹姆斯·怀亚特。 该产品（最初称为Lithodipyra ）是由埃莉诺·科德（Eleanor Coade ）于 1770 年左右推出的，她从 1769 年起直到 1821 年去世一直经营着科德人造石制造厂、科德与西利（西利为埃莉诺的表亲）、以及位于伦敦兰贝斯的科德公司直到 1833 年，这款产品仍由她最后一位商业伙伴威廉·克罗根 (William Croggon) 继续生产
Coade stone, also called Lithodipyra or Lithodipra, (Ancient Greek: λίθος/δίς/πυρά, lit. 'stone fired twice') is stoneware that was often described as an artificial stone in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was used for moulding neoclassical statues, architectural decorations and garden ornaments of the highest quality that remain virtually weatherproof today. Coade stone features were produced by appointment to George III and the Prince Regent for St George's Chapel, Windsor; The Royal Pavilion, Brighton; Carlton House, London; the Royal Naval College, Greenwich; and refurbishment of Buckingham Palace in the 1820s. Coade stone was prized by the most important architects, such as: John Nash (Buckingham Palace), Sir John Soane (Bank of England), Robert Adam (Kenwood House), and James Wyatt (Radcliffe Observatory). The product (originally known as Lithodipyra) was created around 1770 by Eleanor Coade, who ran Coade's Artificial Stone Manufactory, Coade and Sealy, and Coade in Lambeth, London, from 1769 until her death in 1821.
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查看内容许可 ↗铝酸钙是通过高温共热氧化钙和氧化铝得到的一系列的矿物化合物，广泛用于耐火材料和水泥的制造。 相图中标准状况下的稳定相（1atm下的相对湿度）有： 铝酸三钙, 3CaO·Al2O3 (C3A) 七铝酸十二钙, 12CaO·7Al2O3 (C12A7) (钙铝石) 偏铝酸钙, CaO·Al2O3 (CA) 二铝酸钙, CaO·2Al2O3 (CA2) 六铝酸钙, CaO·6Al2O3 (CA6) 此外，还存在以下相： 铝酸二钙, 2CaO·Al2O3 (C2A)，只在2500 MPa以上存在。晶体属于正交晶系，密度为3480 kg·m−3。 三铝酸五钙, 5CaO·3Al2O3 (C5A3)，只在无水、无氧状态下存在。正交晶体，密度3067 kg·m−3。迅速和水反应。 三铝酸四钙, 4CaO·3Al2O3 (C4A3)，通过4CaO·3Al2O3·3H2O (C4A3H3)脱水形成的介稳态。
Calcium aluminates are a range of materials obtained by heating calcium oxide and aluminium oxide together at high temperatures. They are encountered in the manufacture of refractories and cements. The stable phases shown in the phase diagram (formed at atmospheric pressure under an atmosphere of normal humidity) are: Tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO·Al2O3 (C3A) Dodecacalcium hepta-aluminate, 12CaO·7Al2O3 (C12A7) (once known as mayenite) Monocalcium aluminate, CaO·Al2O3 (CA) (occurring in nature as krotite and dmitryivanovite – two polymorphs) Monocalcium dialuminate, CaO·2Al2O3 (CA2) (occurring in nature as grossite ) Monocalcium hexa-aluminate, CaO·6Al2O3 (CA6) (occurring in nature as hibonite, a representative of magnetoplumbite group) In addition, other phases include: Dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO·Al2O3 (C2A), which exists only at pressures above 2500 MPa. The crystal is orthorhombic, with density 3480 kg·m−3. The natural dicalcium aluminate, brownmillerite, may form at normal pressure but elevated temperature in pyrometamorphic zones, e.g., in burning coal-mining heaps.
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查看内容许可 ↗钛酸镝（Dy2Ti2O7）是一种无机化合物，是属于钛酸盐的陶瓷，具有烧绿石结构。 钛酸镝与钛酸钬和锡酸钬一样，是一种自旋冰材料。2009年，已观测到钛酸镝在低温高磁场下拥有类似磁单极子的准粒子。 因镝元素具有极大的热中子吸收截面，该材料在核工业、凝聚态物理领域具有重要应用与研究价值。钛酸镝（Dy2TiO5）自1995年起用作商业核反应堆的控制棒材料。
Dysprosium titanate (Dy2Ti2O7 or Dy2TiO5) is an inorganic compound, specifically a ceramic of the titanate family. Two common phases of this compound exist with differing properties: Dy2Ti2O7 and Dy2TiO5. Dysprosium titanate is commonly used throughout the nuclear industry in nuclear control rods and as a host for nuclear waste.
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查看内容许可 ↗陶瓷基复合材料是有陶瓷成分的复合材料。这种材料有许许多多的陶瓷纤维通过某种排列复合在一起，形成陶瓷纤维增强陶瓷基材料。陶瓷基复合材料可以由任何一种陶瓷成分来构成，一般碳和碳纤维也被认为是陶瓷基复合材料。
In materials science ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials and a subgroup of ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix. The fibers and the matrix both can consist of any ceramic material, including carbon and carbon fibers.
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查看内容许可 ↗蒸馏（英语：distillation、distilled，法语：distillation）是一种热力学的分离工艺，它利用混合液体或液-固体系中各组分沸点不同，使低沸点组分蒸发，再冷凝以分离整个组分的单元操作过程，是蒸发和冷凝两种单元操作的联合。蒸馏可以清除绝大部分杂质和杀死微生物。与其它的分离手段，如萃取、吸附等相比，它的优点在于不需使用系统组分以外的其它溶剂，从而保证不会引入新的杂质。 蒸馏有许多的应用，例如： 将制酒用材料发酵后，用蒸馏方式制作含有高乙醇含量的蒸馏酒，或其他有商业价值的发酵制品。 海水淡化传统上会用蒸馏来进行，利用液体在沸点时产生蒸气的原理，把海水中的水分转变为蒸气，把水分子和盐分分离，再使水分子凝固后就可制得淡水，是有效的作法。 在石油产业中，原油稳定（oil stabilization）是一种减少原油蒸气压的分馏方式，使原油的储存及运输可以安全，也减少原油中挥发到大气中的挥发性碳氢化合物。在炼油厂的中游操作中，分馏是将石油转换为燃料及原材料的主要单元操作类别之一 低温物理学中的蒸馏可以分离空气，产生的产物为工业应用的氧、氮及氩。 化学工业中，许多化学合成的产物会用蒸馏方式，和其他物质（可能是其他产物、杂质，或是未反应的反应物）分离。
Distillation, also classical distillation, is the process of separating the component substances of a liquid mixture of two or more chemically discrete substances by selective boiling of the mixture and the condensation of the vapors in a still. Distillation can operate over a wide range of pressures from 0.14 bar (e.g., ethylbenzene/styrene) to nearly 21 bar (e.g., propylene/propane) and is capable of separating feeds with high volumetric flowrates and various components that cover a range of relative volatilities from only 1.17 (o-xylene/m-xylene) to 81.2 (water/ethylene glycol). Distillation provides a convenient and time-tested solution to separate a diversity of chemicals in a continuous manner with high purity. However, distillation has an enormous environmental footprint, resulting in the consumption of approximately 25% of all industrial energy use. The key issue is that distillation operates based on phase changes, and this separation mechanism requires vast energy inputs.
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查看内容许可 ↗低温生物学（英语：Cryobiology）是研究生物在低温下的变化，是生物学的一门分枝。一般会研究生命器官在低温或低于正常温度的变化、影响及状态。研究范围包括蛋白质、细胞、生物组织等。
Cryobiology is the branch of biology that studies the effects of low temperatures on living things within Earth's cryosphere or in science. The word cryobiology is derived from the Greek words κρῧος [kryos], "cold", βίος [bios], "life", and λόγος [logos], "word". In practice, cryobiology is the study of biological material or systems at temperatures below normal. Materials or systems studied may include proteins, cells, tissues, organs, or whole organisms. Temperatures may range from moderately hypothermic conditions to cryogenic temperatures.
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查看内容许可 ↗临界乳光（Critical Opalescence）是透明液态物质在二级相变（连续相变）区域内的现象。在其温度压力接近临界点时，液体会看似混浊。最早是由Charles Cagniard de la Tour在1823年在酒精和水的混合物中发现临界乳光，后来托马斯·安德鲁斯在二氧化碳液态气体相变的条件下产生了临界乳光，之后也有许多其他物质的实验。最常用来说明的例子是用二元混合物进行的实验，例如环己烷和甲醇的混合物。当物质的状态接近其临界点时，液体和气体区域的大小开始大幅震荡（液态的相关长度发散）。当密度函数振荡到大约光波长的程度时，光会开始散射，因此原来透明的物质会变的不透光而混浊。 1908年，波兰物理学者马里安·斯茅鲁樵斯在1908年首先提出了高密度下的临界浮光。爱因斯坦在1910年描述了临界浮光跟瑞利散射理论的关系。
In physics, critical opalescence refers to the dramatic increase in scattering of light in the region of a continuous, or second-order, phase transition. Near the critical point, the properties of the liquid and gas phases become indistinguishable. The resulting density fluctuations are on such a large scale that they scatter visible light, giving the substance a cloudy or opalescent look. This phenomenon is an indicator of critical phenomena in fluids and can be observed in various materials under the right conditions.
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查看内容许可 ↗在半导体与微系统技术领域，关键尺寸（critical dimension，简称CD）是指由电路设计人员或工艺工程师在测试结构中定义的一个或多个尺寸参数。通过系统评估这些参数，可以判定某一工艺步骤的制造质量。常见的关键尺寸包括线宽或接触孔直径。与控制套刻误差一样，控制关键尺寸是微电子产品制造过程中最重要的环节之一。
In the renormalization group analysis of phase transitions in physics, a critical dimension is the dimensionality of space at which the character of the phase transition changes. Below the lower critical dimension there is no phase transition. Above the upper critical dimension the critical exponents of the theory become the same as that in mean field theory. An elegant criterion to obtain the critical dimension within mean field theory is due to V. Ginzburg. Since the renormalization group sets up a relation between a phase transition and a quantum field theory, this has implications for the latter and for our larger understanding of renormalization in general. Above the upper critical dimension, the quantum field theory which belongs to the model of the phase transition is a free field theory. Below the lower critical dimension, there is no field theory corresponding to the model.
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查看内容许可 ↗在热力学中，临界点是相图中某平衡曲线的终点。其中一个例子就是液态-气态的临界点，是说明物质液态气态共存条件的压强-温度曲线的终点，温度较高时，气态会变成超临界流体，无法单靠加压回到液态。临界点有其温度（临界温度Tc）和压强（临界压强pc），在临界温度和压强下，特定两相之间的边界消失。其他例子包括混合物中的液态–液态临界温度，以及在没有外部磁场下，铁磁性转变成顺磁性的转换点（居里点）。
In thermodynamics, a critical point (or critical state) is the end point of a phase equilibrium curve. One example is the liquid–vapor critical point, the end point of the pressure–temperature curve that designates conditions under which a liquid and its vapor can coexist. At higher temperatures, the gas comes into a supercritical phase, and so cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. At the critical point, defined by a critical temperature Tc and a critical pressure pc, phase boundaries vanish. Other examples include the liquid–liquid critical points in mixtures, and the ferromagnet–paramagnet transition (Curie temperature) in the absence of an external magnetic field.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗临界指数（英语：critical exponent）是物理学中用来描述物理量在临界点附近行为的指数。尽管没有得到严格证明，实验表明临界指数具有普适性，与具体的物理系统无关，仅和系统维度、关联长度与自旋维度有关。 对于四维及以上的系统，可以通过平均场理论计算得到临界指数。但对于低维系统而言平均场理论不再适用，需使用重整化群方法进行研究。
Critical exponents describe the behavior of physical quantities near continuous phase transitions. It is believed, though not proven, that they are universal, i.e. they do not depend on the details of the physical system, but only on some of its general features. For instance, for ferromagnetic systems at thermal equilibrium, the critical exponents depend only on: the dimension of the system the range of the interaction the spin dimension These properties of critical exponents are supported by experimental data. Analytical results can be theoretically achieved in mean field theory in high dimensions or when exact solutions are known such as the two-dimensional Ising model. The theoretical treatment in generic dimensions requires the renormalization group approach or, for systems at thermal equilibrium, the conformal bootstrap techniques. Phase transitions and critical exponents appear in many physical systems such as water at the critical point, in magnetic systems, in superconductivity, in percolation and in turbulent fluids.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗凝华（英语：desublimation, 英语：deposition）是指物质直接从气态变为固态的物态变化。凝华的过程需要放热。
Deposition is the phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase. Deposition is a thermodynamic process. The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimation.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗分步结晶是一种基于液-固相变的逐级分离技术。该技术通过组分间结晶温度的差异实现分提，可纯化各组分互不溶解的多组分混合物以及对目标组分实现极高纯度的分离。
In chemistry, fractional crystallization is a stage-wise separation technique that relies on the liquid–solid phase change. This technique fractionates via differences in crystallization temperature and enables the purification of multi-component mixtures, as long as none of the constituents can act as solvents to the others. Due to the high selectivity of the solid–liquid equilibrium, very high purities can be achieved for the selected component.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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