材料与晶体Interstitial defect间隙缺陷是点缺陷的一种，指代的是一个原子占据了晶体晶格中本不应该存在原子的位置，或是两个或者更多的原子共同分享一个或者多个晶格格位，但这些原子的数量总是大于其所占的晶格格位数。间隙缺陷一般属于晶体中高能量的构型。一些小型的原子能够在某些晶体中的能量较低的构型处形成间隙格位，比如氢原子在钯晶体内。晶体在辐射作用下会产生间隙缺陷，偶尔因为热力平衡也会产生小浓度的间隙缺陷。
In materials science, an interstitial defect is a type of point crystallographic defect where an atom of the same or of a different type, occupies an interstitial site in the crystal structure. When the atom is of the same type as those already present they are known as a self-interstitial defect. Alternatively, small atoms in some crystals may occupy interstitial sites, such as hydrogen in palladium. Interstitials can be produced by bombarding a crystal with elementary particles having energy above the displacement threshold for that crystal, but they may also exist in small concentrations in thermodynamic equilibrium. The presence of interstitial defects can modify the physical and chemical properties of a material.
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查看内容许可 ↗低介电常数材料（low-K材料）在半导体行业中，指其相对介电常数低于二氧化硅（κr=3.9）的材料（其中，相对介电常数，符号为κ或ε，表示材料中电场强度与真空中电场强度之比）。通过降低集成电路中使用的介电材料的介电常数，降低导线之间的电容效应，降低集成电路发热等等。低介电常数材料的研究是同高分子材料密切相关的。传统半导体使用二氧化硅作为介电材料，氧化硅的介电常数约为4。真空的介电常数为1，干燥空气的介电常数接近于1。
In semiconductor manufacturing, a low-κ is a material with a small relative dielectric constant (κ, kappa) relative to silicon dioxide. Low-κ dielectric material implementation is one of several strategies used to allow continued scaling of microelectronic devices, colloquially referred to as extending Moore's law. In digital circuits, insulating dielectrics separate the conducting parts (wire interconnects and transistors) from one another. As components have scaled and transistors have gotten closer together, the insulating dielectrics have thinned to the point where charge build up and crosstalk adversely affect the performance of the device. Replacing the silicon dioxide with a low-κ dielectric of the same thickness reduces parasitic capacitance, enabling faster switching speeds (in case of synchronous circuits) and lower heat dissipation. In conversation such materials may be referred to as "low-k" (spoken "low-kay") rather than "low-κ" (low-kappa).
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查看内容许可 ↗克罗尔法是精炼钛的高温冶金工业制程。1940年由卢森堡的冶金学家威廉·克罗尔（William J. Kroll）发明并获得专利。克罗尔搬家到美国后将克罗尔法推广到锆的冶炼。克罗尔法现已几乎取代亨特法在商业生产高纯度钛的地位。
The Kroll process is a pyrometallurgical industrial process used to produce metallic titanium from titanium tetrachloride. As of 2001 William Justin Kroll's process replaced the Hunter process for almost all commercial production.
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查看内容许可 ↗开尔文-沃伊特材料（Kelvin–Voigt material），又称沃伊特材料，是表现典型橡胶特性的最简单黏弹性模型。该材料在长时间尺度（慢速形变）下表现为纯弹性，但在快速形变时会产生额外的阻力。该模型由英国物理学家开尔文勋爵于1865年及德国物理学家沃尔德马·沃伊特于1890年分别独立提出。 开尔文-沃伊特模型（或称沃伊特模型）由一个纯黏性阻尼器和一个纯弹性弹簧并联组成。 若将这两个元件串联，则得到麦克斯韦模型。
A Kelvin–Voigt material, also called a Voigt material, is the simplest model viscoelastic material showing typical rubbery properties. It is purely elastic on long timescales (slow deformation), but shows additional resistance to fast deformation. The model was developed independently by the British physicist Lord Kelvin in 1865 and by the German physicist Woldemar Voigt in 1890.
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查看内容许可 ↗德语缩略词LIGA（代表工艺步骤：光刻（Lithographie）、电镀（Galvanik）与成型（Abformung））是指一种基于深度光刻、电镀与微成型相结合的工艺。LIGA工艺于20世纪80年代初在当时的卡尔斯鲁厄核研究中心由埃尔温·威利·贝克尔和沃尔夫冈·埃尔费尔德领导的团队开发，最初是作为浓缩铀的分离喷嘴法开发的一部分，旨在制造极小的分离喷嘴。 该工艺可使用塑料、金属或陶瓷等材料，制造出最小尺寸达0.2 µm、结构高度达3 mm且深宽比高达50（局部细节结构的深宽比可达500）的微结构。LIGA工艺广泛应用于微系统技术领域，尤其是微光学领域，特别是在需要制造具有极高深宽比的结构时。
LIGA is a fabrication technology used to create high-aspect-ratio microstructures. The term is a German acronym for Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung – lithography, electroplating, and molding.
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查看内容许可 ↗低能电子衍射（英语：Low-energy electron diffraction，LEED）是一种用以测定单晶表面结构的实验手段，使用准直的低能电子束（20–200 eV）轰击样品表面，可在荧光屏上观测到被衍射的电子所形成的光斑，进而表征样品的表面结构。 低能电子衍射有以下两种应用方式： 定性分析：着眼于衍射图案与衍射光斑位置的分析，可获得表面结构的对称性。若表面有吸附物，定性分析可确定吸附物的单位晶格与基底单位晶格的相对大小及方向。 定量分析：着眼于衍射电子束的强度与入射电子束能量的关系，将此关系（LEED I-V 曲线）与理论预测相比较，可获得表面原子确切的位置信息。
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for the determination of the surface structure of single-crystalline materials by bombardment with a collimated beam of low-energy electrons (30–200 eV) and observation of diffracted electrons as spots on a fluorescent screen. LEED may be used in one of two ways: Qualitatively, where the diffraction pattern is recorded and analysis of the spot positions gives information on the symmetry of the surface structure. In the presence of an adsorbate the qualitative analysis may reveal information about the size and rotational alignment of the adsorbate unit cell with respect to the substrate unit cell. Quantitatively, where the intensities of diffracted beams are recorded as a function of incident electron beam energy to generate the so-called I–V curves. By comparison with theoretical curves, these may provide accurate information on atomic positions on the surface at hand.
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查看内容许可 ↗激光加热平台成长（Laser-heated pedestal growth，缩写简称LHPG）或激光浮区法（laser floating zone，缩写简称LFZ）)是一种晶体成长技术。 该技术可以被视为一种精简版的区域熔炼，只不过热源改成了功率强大的二氧化碳激光或者钇铝石榴石激光。 在现代众多液体/固体相变化的晶体成长技术中，激光加热平台成长已成为材料科学研究中的重要技术。 激光加热平台成长技术具有两大优势，其一为高拉取速率（高达传统柴氏拉晶法的60倍快），其二为可以生长熔点较高的材料。 除此之外，激光加热平台成长不需要用到坩埚，意味着该技术可以成长几乎不受杂质及应力影响的单晶。
Laser-heated pedestal growth (LHPG) or laser floating zone (LFZ) is a crystal growth technique. A narrow region of a crystal is melted with a powerful CO2 or Nd:YAG laser. The laser and hence the floating zone, is moved along the crystal. The molten region melts impure solid at its forward edge and leaves a wake of purer material solidified behind it. This technique for growing crystals from the melt (liquid/solid phase transition) is used in materials research.
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查看内容许可 ↗朗缪尔吸附模型（英语：Langmuir adsorption model）也常被称为朗缪尔吸附等温式。这一模型假设在等温吸附过程中，吸附质的分子与理想气体的分子类似，吸附和解吸是一对可逆过程。也解释了吸附质的分压 p A {\displaystyle p_{A}} 与固体吸附剂上吸附质的体积之间的关系。其中的吸附剂被假设为一个理想的固体表面，具有一系列能够与吸附质结合的位点。这种结合被视作气相的吸附质分子 A g {\displaystyle A_{\text{g}}} 和空的位点S的相互作用。
The Langmuir adsorption model explains adsorption by assuming an adsorbate behaves as an ideal gas at isothermal conditions. According to the model, adsorption and desorption are reversible processes. This model even explains the effect of pressure; i.e., at these conditions the adsorbate's partial pressure p A {\displaystyle p_{A}} is related to its volume V adsorbed onto a solid adsorbent. The adsorbent, as indicated in the figure, is assumed to be an ideal solid surface composed of a series of distinct sites capable of binding the adsorbate. The adsorbate binding is treated as a chemical reaction between the adsorbate gaseous molecule A g {\displaystyle A_{\text{g}}} and an empty sorption site S.
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查看内容许可 ↗纯物质有单一熔点，而混合物会在固相温度（TS或Tsol）部分熔化，在较高的液相温度（TL或Tliq）完全熔化。固相温度恒小于或等于液相温度。若固相温度和液相温度不相等，在两者之间的区域称为凝固范围（freezing range），此区域内会有液相和固相共存的混合物（类似泥浆）像地球地幔中的橄榄石（镁橄榄石-铁橄榄石）系统即为此例。
While chemically pure materials have a single melting point, chemical mixtures often partially melt at the temperature known as the solidus (TS or Tsol), and fully melt at the higher liquidus temperature (TL or Tliq). The solidus is always less than or equal to the liquidus, but they need not coincide. If a gap exists between the solidus and liquidus it is called the freezing range, and within that gap, the substance consists of a mixture of solid and liquid phases (like a slurry). Such is the case, for example, with the olivine (forsterite-fayalite) system, which is common in Earth's mantle.
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查看内容许可 ↗熔化（melting）又称熔融（fusion）、熔解，是物质由固态转变为液态的过程；其中在常温下发生的自然熔化（比如冰转化为水）又作融化、融解。 任何固体化合物通过加热变为液态，其状态都称为熔融态（molten state，fused state），并不局限于盐类。盐类物质的熔融液体，称作熔盐。熔体（melt）或熔融物，是指熔融后的液体物质本身。 熔化产生的原因是物质中的内能增加（通常借由加热或加压）至一特定的温度（称之为熔点），在该温度下（或对于非纯物质，在某温度区段内），分子之间的部分化学键被打破，使其原本牢固的形态转变为可以流动的液态。 一般物质因温度升高而熔化时，其黏度会下降，唯一的例外是元素硫，随着温度升高，因为聚合使其黏度会上升到一定程度，温度再上升时其黏度又会下降。 有些有机物质熔化时会出现介晶相，是一种介于固态及液态之间的相。
Melting, or fusion, is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid. This occurs when the internal energy of the solid increases, typically by the application of heat or pressure, which increases the substance's temperature to the melting point. At the melting point, the ordering of ions or molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state, and the solid melts to become a liquid. Substances in the molten state generally have reduced viscosity as the temperature increases. An exception to this principle is elemental sulfur, whose viscosity increases in the range of 130 °C to 190 °C due to polymerization. Some organic compounds melt through mesophases, states of partial order between solid and liquid.
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查看内容许可 ↗麦克斯韦模型（英语：Maxwell model）是用于描述材料粘弹性的一种模型。麦克斯韦由一个纯弹性的弹簧和一个纯黏性的黏壶（阻尼器）串联而成，其中的弹簧符合胡克定律，用于描述材料的弹性方面性质；而黏壶符合牛顿流体特征，代表黏性方面性质。1867年，詹姆斯·麦克斯韦提出了这一模型，符合这一模型的流体也被称为麦克斯韦流体。如果将弹簧和黏壶并联，则被称为开尔文-沃伊特模型。
In fluid mechanics, a Maxwell model is the simplest model viscoelastic material showing properties of a typical liquid. It shows viscous flow on the long timescale, but additional elastic resistance to fast deformations. It is named for James Clerk Maxwell who proposed the model in 1867. It is also known as a Maxwell fluid. A generalization of the scalar relation to a tensor equation lacks motivation from more microscopic models and does not comply with the concept of material objectivity. However, these criteria are fulfilled by the Upper-convected Maxwell model.
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查看内容许可 ↗材料是人类可以利用制作有用构件、器件或物品的物质。 材料的发展标志着社会的进步，比如石器的广泛使用是“石器时代”，相似的还有“青铜时代”和“铁器时代”等等。材料和资讯与能源被称为现代文明的三大支柱。
A material is a substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object. Materials can be pure or impure, living or non-living matter. Materials can be classified on the basis of their physical and chemical properties, or on their geological origin or biological function. Materials science is the study of materials, their properties, and their applications. Raw materials can be processed in different ways to influence their properties, by purification, shaping or the introduction of other materials. New materials can be produced from raw materials by synthesis. In industry, materials are inputs to manufacturing processes to produce products or more complex materials, and the nature and quantity of materials used may form part of the calculation for the cost of a product or delivery under contract, Such as where contract costS are calculated on a "time and materials" basis.
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查看内容许可 ↗材料专案（Materials Project）是一个提供材料性质的开放式数据库，以预测如何使用新材料（包括真实材料和假设材料）来加速技术发展。该专案成立于2011年，重点是电池研究，但也包括洁净能源系统的诸多领域如光伏、热电材料和催化剂等性质计算。数据库中包含大部分已知的35,000种分子和超过130,000种无机化合物。 劳伦斯伯克利国家实验室的Kristin Persson博士创立并领导了该专案。
The Materials Project is an open-access database offering material properties to accelerate the development of technology by predicting how new materials–both real and hypothetical–can be used. The project was established in 2011 with an emphasis on battery research, but includes property calculations for many areas of clean energy systems such as photovoltaics, thermoelectric materials, and catalysts. Most of the known 35,000 molecules and over 130,000 inorganic compounds are included in the database. Dr. Kristin Persson of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory founded and leads the initiative, which uses supercomputers at Berkeley, among other institutions, to run calculations using Density Functional Theory (DFT). Commonly computed values include enthalpy of formation, crystal structure, and band gap. The assembled databases of computed structures and properties is freely available to anyone under a CC 4.0 license and was developed with ease of use in mind.
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查看内容许可 ↗钢筋混凝土（英语：Reinforced Concrete，Ferroconcrete，RC），工程上常简称为钢筋砼或钢混，是指通过在混凝土中加入钢筋、钢筋网、钢板或纤维而构成的一种组合材料，两者共同工作从而改善混凝土抗拉强度不足的力学性质，为混凝土加固的一种最常见形式。
Reinforced concrete, also called ferroconcrete or ferro-concrete, is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (known as rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. However, post-tensioning is also employed as a technique to reinforce the concrete. In terms of volume used annually, it is one of the most common engineering materials. In corrosion engineering terms, when designed correctly, the alkalinity of the concrete protects the steel rebar from corrosion.
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查看内容许可 ↗可靠性工程是系统工程的一个分支学科，它强调设备应该无故障运行，即产品、系统或服务在特定环境下无故障运行，而且在特定时间内充分发挥其预期功能。
Reliability engineering is a sub-discipline of systems engineering that emphasizes the ability of equipment to function without failure. Reliability is defined as the probability that a product, system, or service will perform its intended function adequately for a specified period of time; or will operate in a defined environment without failure. Reliability is closely related to availability, which is typically described as the ability of a component or system to function at a specified moment or interval of time. The reliability function is theoretically defined as the probability of success. In practice, it is calculated using different techniques, and its value ranges between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates no probability of success while 1 indicates definite success. This probability is estimated from detailed (physics of failure) analysis, previous data sets, or through reliability testing and reliability modeling. Availability, testability, maintainability, and maintenance are often defined as a part of "reliability engineering" in reliability programs.
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查看内容许可 ↗兰贝格-奥斯古德方程是固体力学中描述材料在其屈服点附近的应力-应变关系（应力-应变曲线）的一个理论模型，其形式为： ϵ = σ E + K ( σ E ) n {\displaystyle \epsilon ={\frac {\sigma }{E}}+K({\frac {\sigma }{E}})^{n}} , 其中 ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } 表示总应变，即包含弹性和塑性应变. σ {\displaystyle \sigma } 表示总应力. E {\displaystyle E} 为材料的杨氏模量 K {\displaystyle K} 和 n {\displaystyle n} 是与材料类型相关的常数。
The Ramberg–Osgood equation was created to describe the nonlinear relationship between stress and strain—that is, the stress–strain curve—in materials near their yield points. It is especially applicable to metals that harden with plastic deformation (see work hardening), showing a smooth elastic-plastic transition. As it is a phenomenological model, checking the fit of the model with actual experimental data for the particular material of interest is essential.
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查看内容许可 ↗辐射下的材料科学描述了辐射和物质之间的相互作用：它是涵盖了辐射作用对物质所产生的各种形态的影响的非常宽广的领域。
Radiation materials science is a subfield of materials science which studies the interaction of radiation with matter: a broad subject covering many forms of irradiation and of matter.
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查看内容许可 ↗在材料科学中，滑移系描述的是一组滑移面，以及与之对应的滑移方向。滑移方向容易产生位错，导致材料产生塑性变形。外力促使布拉菲晶格相对彼此互相滑动，并使得材料的结构发生变化。滑移的方向、大小由伯格斯矢量表示。
In materials science, slip is the large displacement of one part of a crystal relative to another part along crystallographic planes and directions. Slip occurs by the passage of dislocations on close/packed planes, which are planes containing the greatest number of atoms per area and in close-packed directions (most atoms per length). Close-packed planes are known as slip or glide planes. A slip system describes the set of symmetrically identical slip planes and associated family of slip directions for which dislocation motion can easily occur and lead to plastic deformation. The magnitude and direction of slip are represented by the Burgers vector, b. An external force makes parts of the crystal lattice glide along each other, changing the material's geometry. A critical resolved shear stress is required to initiate a slip.
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查看内容许可 ↗自修复材料是一类拥有结构上自愈合能力的智能材料，这种能力能修复由于长期的机械使用所造成的损害。发明这种材料的灵感源于在受伤后能自我修复的生物系统。从肉眼可见的裂缝到显微镜才能观察到的损伤，这一切都会改变材料的热学、力学乃至声学性能。最严重的情况可能会使整个材料报废。尽管人们习惯于用双手修理损伤，但是很多的损伤是肉眼不可见的。然而，这世界上已经有一些材料具备了自修复功能，比如一些高分子和陶瓷材料。在经过一系列的不同的工艺过程后，它们能修复自身的损伤。这样的材料能够在降解之前使用更长的时间，甚至可以减少由于材料报废而造成的损失。对于一种能够被称为自修复的材料，它的修复过程必须是不需要人参与的。
Self-healing materials are artificial or synthetically created substances that have the built-in ability to automatically repair damages to themselves without any external diagnosis of the problem or human intervention. Generally, materials will degrade over time due to fatigue, environmental conditions, or damage incurred during operation. Cracks and other types of damage on a microscopic level have been shown to change thermal, electrical, and acoustical properties of materials, and the propagation of cracks can lead to eventual failure of the material. In general, cracks are hard to detect at an early stage, and manual intervention is required for periodic inspections and repairs. In contrast, self-healing materials counter degradation through the initiation of a repair mechanism that responds to the micro-damage. Some self-healing materials are classed as smart structures, and can adapt to various environmental conditions according to their sensing and actuation properties.
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查看内容许可 ↗剪切带（shear band）是材料中一个狭窄的强剪切应变区，通常在延性材料严重变形时出现，具有可塑性。剪切带会比材料的其他部位先失去韧性，剪切带中发生的极端变形可能导致材料严重的损坏和断裂，因此研究剪切带如何形成是一个对材料应用非常重要的课题，20世纪中叶以来变形局部化（localization of deformation）一直被密集研究。
In solid mechanics, a shear band (or, more generally, a strain localization) is a narrow zone of intense strain due to shearing, usually of plastic nature, developing during severe deformation of ductile materials. As an example, a soil (overconsolidated silty-clay) specimen is shown in Fig. 1, after an axialsymmetric compression test. Initially the sample was cylindrical in shape and, since symmetry was tried to be preserved during the test, the cylindrical shape was maintained for a while during the test and the deformation was homogeneous, but at extreme loading two X-shaped shear bands had formed and the subsequent deformation was strongly localized (see also the sketch on the right of Fig. 1).
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查看内容许可 ↗卢瑟福背散射分析或卢瑟福背散射谱学（Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry，RBS），有时候被称为高能离子散射谱学（High-Energy Ion Scattering，HEIS），是一种离子束分析技术，被用在材料科学中，用以分析、测量材料的结构和组成。通过将一束确定能量的高能离子束（通常是质子或α粒子）打到待分析材料上，检测背向反射的离子的能量，即可确定靶原子的种类、浓度和深度分布。 卢瑟福背散射分析的基本原理详见卢瑟福散射。
Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) is an analytical technique used in materials science. Sometimes referred to as high-energy ion scattering (HEIS) spectrometry, RBS is used to determine the structure and composition of materials by measuring the backscattering of a beam of high energy ions (typically protons or alpha particles) impinging on a sample.
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查看内容许可 ↗在物理学中，布拉格定律给出晶格的相干及不相干散射角度。当X射线入射于原子时，跟任何电磁波一样，它们会使电子云移动。电荷的运动把波动以同样的频率再发射出去（会因其他各种效应而变得有点模糊）；这种现象叫瑞利散射（或弹性散射）。散射出来的波可以再相互散射，但这种进级散射在这里是可以忽略的。当中子波与原子核或不成对电子的相干自旋进行相互作用时，会发生一种与上述电磁波相近的过程。这些被重新发射出来的波来相互干涉，可能是相长的，也可能是相消的（重叠的波某程度上会加起来产生更强的波峰，或相互消抵），在探测器或底片上产生衍射图样。而所产生的波干涉图样就是衍射分析的基本部分。这种解析叫布拉格衍射。 布拉格衍射（又称X射线衍射的布拉格形式），最早由威廉·劳伦斯·布拉格及威廉·亨利·布拉格于1913年提出，他们早前发现了固体在反射X射线后产生的晶体线（与其他物态不同，例如液体），而这项定律正好解释了这样一种效应。他们发现，这些晶体在特定的波长及入射角时，反射出来的辐射会形成集中的波峰（叫布拉格尖峰）。布拉格衍射这个概念同样适用于中子衍射及电子衍射 。中子及X射线的波长都于原子间距离(~150 pm)相若，因此它们很适合在这种长度作“探针”之用。 威廉·劳伦斯·布拉格使用了一个模型来解释这个结果，模型中晶体为一组各自分离的平行平面，相邻平面间的距离皆为一常数d。他的解释是，如果各平面反射出来的X射线成相长干涉的话，那么入射的X射线经晶体反射后会产生布拉格尖峰。当相位差为2π及其倍数时，干涉为相长的；这个条件可经由布拉格定律表示： n λ = 2 d sin θ {\displaystyle n\lambda =2d\sin \theta \!} 其中n为整数，λ为入射波的波长，d为原子晶格内的平面间距，而θ则为入射波与散射平面间的夹角。注意移动中的粒子，包括电子、质子和中子，都有对应其速度及质量的德布罗意波长。
In many areas of science, Bragg's law – also known as Wulff–Bragg's condition or Laue–Bragg interference – is a special case of Laue diffraction that gives the angles for coherent scattering of waves from a large crystal lattice. It describes how the superposition of wave fronts scattered by lattice planes leads to a strict relation between the wavelength and scattering angle. This law was initially formulated for X-rays, but it also applies to all types of matter waves including neutron and electron waves if there are a large number of atoms, as well as to visible light with artificial periodic microscale lattices.
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查看内容许可 ↗解理（英语：cleavage）又称劈理，是矿物学和宝石学的常见术语，指的是矿物或宝石晶体在外力的作用下，沿一定的结晶学方向裂开成光滑平面的性质。这些光滑的平面称为解理面或劈理面。常用与解理平行发育或可能发育的单型符号表示。
Cleavage, in mineralogy and materials science, is the tendency of crystalline materials to split along definite crystallographic structural planes. These planes of relative weakness are a result of the regular locations of atoms and ions in the crystal, which create smooth repeating surfaces that are visible both in the microscope and to the naked eye. If bonds in certain directions are weaker than others, the crystal will tend to split along the weakly bonded planes. These flat breaks are termed "cleavage". The classic example of cleavage is mica, which cleaves in a single direction along the basal pinacoid, making the layers seem like pages in a book. In fact, mineralogists often refer to "books of mica". Diamond and graphite provide examples of cleavage. Each is composed solely of a single element, carbon. In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four others in a tetrahedral pattern with short covalent bonds. The planes of weakness (cleavage planes) in a diamond are in four directions, following the faces of the octahedron.
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查看内容许可 ↗在物理学中，布拉格平面（英语：Bragg plane）是指在倒易空间中垂直平分倒易矢量 K {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \mathbf {K} } 的平面。布拉格平面被定义为X射线衍射晶体学中衍射峰的劳厄衍射条件的一部分。
In physics, a Bragg plane is a plane in reciprocal space which bisects a reciprocal lattice vector, K {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \mathbf {K} } , at right angles. The Bragg plane is defined as part of the Von Laue condition for diffraction peaks in x-ray diffraction crystallography.
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查看内容许可 ↗在晶体学里，原子堆积因子（或称APF）是计算一个晶体的体积里原子体积占的比例的函数。在计算前，必须假定原子是坚硬的球体，而且有确定的表面(而不是含糊不清的电子云)。对只有一种元素的晶体来说，原子堆积因子的数学表示方法是： A P F = N a t o m s V a t o m V c r y s t a l {\displaystyle \mathrm {APF} ={\frac {N_{\mathrm {atoms} }V_{\mathrm {atom} }}{V_{\mathrm {crystal} }}}} 在这里，Natoms 是一个晶体里原子的数量，而Vatom 是每个原子的体积…
In crystallography, atomic packing factor (APF), packing efficiency, or packing fraction is the fraction of volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by constituent particles. It is a dimensionless quantity and always less than unity. In atomic systems, by convention, the APF is determined by assuming that atoms are rigid spheres. The radius of the spheres is taken to be the maximum value such that the atoms do not overlap.
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查看内容许可 ↗对于许多聚合物的等温结晶过程，它们的结晶进程与时间的关系可以用阿夫拉米方程（Avrami equation）来描述。
The Avrami equation describes how solids transform from one phase to another at constant temperature. It can specifically describe the kinetics of crystallisation, can be applied generally to other changes of phase in materials, like chemical reaction rates, and can even be meaningful in analyses of ecological systems. The equation is also known as the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) equation. The equation was first derived by Johnson, Mehl, Avrami and Kolmogorov (in Russian) in a series of articles published in the Journal of Chemical Physics between 1939 and 1941. Moreover, Kolmogorov treated statistically the crystallization of a solid in 1937 .
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查看内容许可 ↗正负离子半径比或阳阴离子半径比（英语：Cation-anion radius ratio）是在凝聚态物理和无机化学中用来预测离子化合物晶体结构的参数。其定义为离子化合中带正电的阳离子半径 r C {\displaystyle r_{C}} 与带负电的阴离子半径 r A {\displaystyle r_{A}} 的比值 r C / r A {\displaystyle r_{C}/r_{A}} 。通常情况下，阴离子的半径比阳离子半径大，因此常是阴离子占据晶格位点，阳离子则填充阴离子之间的空隙，因此可以根据几何关系预测晶体的结构。该法则是鲍林法则中的第一规则。在给定结构下，可简称为半径比。
In condensed matter physics and inorganic chemistry, the cation-anion radius ratio can be used to predict the crystal structure of an ionic compound based on the relative size of its atoms. It is defined as the ratio of the ionic radius of the positively charged cation to the ionic radius of the negatively charged anion in a cation-anion compound. Anions are larger than cations. Large sized anions occupy lattice sites, while small sized cations are found in voids. In a given structure, the ratio of cation radius to anion radius is called the radius ratio. This is simply given by r C / r A {\displaystyle r_{C}/r_{A}} .
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查看内容许可 ↗共晶体或共晶（英语：cocrystal）是晶体学中的概念，人们对其定义有着争议，一种认为共晶体是由至少两种组分组成的晶体，其组分可以是原子、分子或离子。另一种认为共晶体是由至少两种组分组成的、具有独特性质的晶体。也有认为液相合金通过共晶凝固同时结晶出两个固相，这样两相的混合物成为共晶组织或共晶体。
In materials science (specifically crystallography), cocrystals are "solids that are crystalline, single-phase materials composed of two or more different molecular or ionic compounds generally in a stoichiometric ratio which are neither solvates nor simple salts." A broader definition is that cocrystals "consist of two or more components that form a unique crystalline structure having unique properties." Several subclassifications of cocrystals exist. Cocrystals can encompass many types of compounds, including hydrates, solvates and clathrates, which represent the basic principle of host–guest chemistry. Hundreds of examples of cocrystallization are reported annually.
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查看内容许可 ↗晶体通常可分为七种晶系，即立方晶系、六方晶系、四方晶系、三方晶系、正交晶系、单斜晶系、三斜晶系。其中的立方晶系具有各向同性，属于高级晶族。
In crystallography, a crystal system is a set of point groups (a group of geometric symmetries with at least one fixed point). A lattice system is a set of Bravais lattices (an infinite array of discrete points). Space groups (symmetry groups of a configuration in space) are classified into crystal systems according to their point groups, and into lattice systems according to their Bravais lattices. Crystal systems that have space groups assigned to a common lattice system are combined into a crystal family. Informally, two crystals are in the same crystal system if they have similar symmetries (though there are many exceptions).
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查看内容许可 ↗结晶，是指从过饱和溶液中凝结，或从气体凝华出具有一定的几何形状的固体（晶体）的过程。在自然环境下，气温的下降压力的作用，都会造成结晶。结晶的过程一般可分为两个阶段（包括成核和晶体生长期），时间也有所不同。 结晶亦是一种分离固态和液态物质的技术，其中溶质由溶液中转移至纯净的晶体里。不少自然过程都涉及结晶: 天然晶体的形成 （如矿物、宝石等） 雪花的形成 蜂蜜的结晶 如饱和溶液的气温下降速度慢，会形成一颗较大的晶体；如气温急剧下降，会形成粉状的小晶体。而小晶体可以放进饱和溶液充当大晶体的种子。 而重结晶或再结晶是重复结晶作用，用以准备纯度更高的结晶。
Crystallization is a process that leads to solids with a uniform pattern of atoms or molecules, i.e. a crystal. The uniform nature of a crystalline solid can be contrasted with amorphous solids in which atoms or molecules lack regular organization. Crystallization can occur by various routes including precipitation from solution, freezing of a liquid, or deposition from a gas. Attributes of the resulting crystal can depend largely on factors such as temperature, air pressure, cooling rate, or solute concentration. Crystallization occurs in two main phases. The first is nucleation, the appearance of a crystalline phase from either a supercooled liquid or a supersaturated solvent. The second step is known as crystal growth, which is the increase in the size of particles and leads to a crystal state. An important feature of this step is that loose particles form layers at the crystal's surface and lodge themselves into open inconsistencies such as pores, cracks, etc.
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