地球与地质Geology地质学（英语：geology）是对地球的起源、历史与结构进行研究的学科。主要研究地球的物质组成、内部构造、外部特征、各圈层间的相互作用和演变历史。在现阶段，由于观察、研究条件的限制，主要以岩石圈为研究对象，并涉及水圈、大气圈、生物圈和岩石圈下更深的部分，以及涉及其他行星和卫星的太空地质学。
Geology is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical bodies, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. The name comes from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) 'earth' and λoγία (-logía) 'study of, discourse'. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology. It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science. Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface and the processes that have shaped that structure. Geologists study the mineralogical composition of rocks in order to get insight into their history of formation. Geology determines the relative ages of rocks found at a given location; geochemistry (a branch of geology) determines their absolute ages. By combining various petrological, crystallographic, and paleontological tools, geologists are able to chronicle the geological history of the Earth as a whole. One aspect is to demonstrate the age of the Earth.
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查看内容许可 ↗矿物学（英语：mineralogy）是运用物理学（如X光衍射）、化学方法（化学计量）等不同领域来研究矿物的物理性质（包括光学性质）、化学性质、晶体结构、自然分布和状态的一门科学。在矿物学中，具体研究包括矿物的起源和形成的过程，矿物的分类，它们的地理分布，以及它们的利用率。
Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, and their utilization.
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查看内容许可 ↗板块构造论（英语：Plate tectonics），又称板块构造假说、板块构造学说或板块构造学，总称“板块漂移”，是为了解释大陆漂移现象而发展出的一种地质学理论。该理论认为，地球的岩石圈是由板块拼合而成，海洋和陆地的位置会随着板块移动而不断变化。根据这种理论，地球内部构造的最外层分为两部分：外层的岩石圈和内层的软流圈。这种理论基于两种独立的地质观测结果：海底扩张和大陆漂移。 岩石圈可以分为大板块及小板块，两板块相接触的部分则可依其相对运动来分为分离板块边缘、聚合板块边缘及转形断层。现今的全球可大致分为六大板块，于1968年由法国学者勒皮雄划分。在板块边缘常会出现地震、火山、造山运动及海沟。现今每年的相对运动距离约在10至150毫米不等。 在聚合板块边缘会有隐没带，会将板块沉降至地幔，使岩石圈质量减少，而分离板块边缘因海底扩张形成的新地壳，这种对板块的预测称为输送带原理。较早期的理论认为地球会渐渐膨胀或是渐渐收缩，也都还有一些人支持。 板块可以移动的原因是因为岩石圈的强度比下方的软流圈要大，地幔横向密度的变化造成了地幔对流。一般认为板块运动是由海底远离扩张脊的运动（因为地形及地壳密度的变化；远离洋脊，地形变低，地壳变冷，而造成地球引力的差异）、及在隐没带（位于地幔对流的下降环），洋壳由于冷和重，向下沉到地幔所造成的牵引力，等影响组合而成。与地球旋转的受力差异无关。
Plate tectonics (from Latin tectonicus, from Ancient Greek τεκτονικός (tektonikós) 'pertaining to building') is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid- to late 1960s. The processes that result in plates and shape Earth's crust are called tectonics. Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually.
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查看内容许可 ↗地球物理学（英语：geophysics）是透过定量物理方法研究地球的自然科学学科。通常使用地震波、重力、电磁、地热和放射能等方法。狭义的地球物理学专指地质学上的应用，包括地球的形状; 重力场和磁场; 内部结构和组成; 动力学和板块构造; 岩浆的产生; 火山活动和岩石形成等。不过现代地球物理学组织使用更广泛的定义，包括了冰和水在内的水循环； 海洋和大气的流体动力学; 电离层和磁层中的电磁特性与日地关系; 以及月球和其他行星相关的类似问题。 虽然地球物理学在19世纪才被认为是一门独立的学科，但起源可以追溯到古代。最早人类开始以天然磁石制作成指南针。公元132年张衡建立了第一台检验地震的仪器。艾萨克·牛顿将他的力学理论应用于潮汐和岁差，并开发了仪器来测量地球的形状、密度和重力场，以及水循环的流程。 20世纪以来，发展出使用远距离探测固体地球和海洋的地球物理学方法，地球物理学对于板块构造理论的发展影响相当大。 地球物理学有许多对于社会需求的应用，如矿产资源、自然灾害预防和环境保护。地球物理勘测数据则用于分析潜藏的油气和矿脉; 地下水层定位;寻找考古遗迹;确定冰川和土壤的厚度;评估环境复育的场址等等。
Geophysics () is a physical science concerned with the processes and properties of Earth and its surrounding space environment, studied using quantitative and observational methods. It focuses primarily on Earth’s shape and its gravitational, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields. It also studies internal structure, composition, and dynamics, and their surface expression in tectonics, volcanism, and rock formation. Geophysics also encompasses a broader Earth-system and planetary perspective, including the oceans, atmosphere, cryosphere, ionosphere, magnetosphere, as well as solar–terrestrial interactions and analogous processes on the Moon, other planets, and their satellites. It is one of the oldest sciences, dating back to antiquity with the development of early seismometers and magnetic compasses, and later extending to Newtonian analyses of tides, precession, and Earth’s physical properties.
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查看内容许可 ↗地貌学，又称地形学，是一门研究地球表面起伏形态、分布规律、物质结构、发展历史和开发利用的科学，是自然地理学的一个分支学科，也是地质学和地理学之间的一门边缘交叉学科。从语源来看，地貌学的英文Geomorphology源自希腊语，由Geo（地球）、Morphe（外表形态）和Logos（论述）三词组成，即关于地球外表面貌的论述。而地貌是地球表面的形形色色的各种空间实物形体，有自然形体和人工形体两大类。
Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) 'earth', μορφή (morphḗ) 'form' and λόγος (lógos) 'study') is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology, and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.
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查看内容许可 ↗地磁场，即地球磁场，是源自于地球内部，并延伸到太空的磁场。磁场在地表上的强度在25－65微特斯拉（即0.25至0.65高斯）之间。粗略地说，地磁场是一个与地球自转轴呈11°夹角的磁偶极子，相当于在地球中心放置了一个倾斜了的磁棒。目前的地磁北极位于北半球的格陵兰附近，实际上它是地磁场的南极，而地磁南极则是地磁场的北极。地核向外散发热量时，引起外核中熔融铁的对流运动，进而产生电流，地磁场即是此电流所致。这种形成天体磁场的原理，称为发电机理论。 南北磁极通常位于地理极附近，但其位置在地质时间尺度上可以有较大的变化。这种变化极其缓慢，不足以干预指南针的日常使用。不过，平均每几十万年会发生一次地磁逆转，即南北磁极突然（与地质时间尺度相比较）互相换位。每次逆转都会在岩石中留下印迹，这对古地磁学研究十分重要。以此所得的数据有助科学家了解大陆和海床的板块运动。 磁层指的是地磁场在电离层以上的影响范围。它能够向太空延伸几万公里，并且阻止太阳风和宇宙射线中的带电粒子损毁地球大气上层，因此使得阻挡紫外线的臭氧层不致消失。
Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. The magnetic field is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of a mixture of molten iron and nickel in Earth's outer core: these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a geodynamo. The magnitude of Earth's magnetic field varies over its surface and changes with time. In a 2019 survey it ranged around 30,000 to 60,000 nT (0.30 to 0.60 G). As an approximation, it is represented by a field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 11° with respect to Earth's rotational axis, as if there were an enormous bar magnet placed at that angle through the center of Earth.
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查看内容许可 ↗沉积学（英语：sedimentology）这一概念最早由H. A. Wadell于1932年提出，简单定义为研究沉积物的科学。于1973年出版的《Glossary of Geology》中将沉积学定义为“对沉积物的来源、沉积岩的描述和分类以及沉积物形成过程进行研究的科学。”Friedman和Sanders（1978）将沉积学定义为研究沉积物、沉积过程、沉积岩和沉积环境的科学，对沉积学的研究范围给予了比较完整的概括。 地球表面大部分被沉积岩所覆盖，其中记录了丰富的关于地球历史的信息，也赋存了许多化石记录。沉积学与地层学有着紧密的联系，地层学主要研究地层之间物理上的和形成时间上的关系。 得以认识岩石中的沉积特征是如何形成的前提是地质学上的一个普遍原则：“将今论古”原则，即今天的地球是被怎样的因素所影响的，在过去的地球也被同样的因素以同样的方式影响着。通过对比现代沉积环境的岩石特征和古代沉积岩的特征，地质学家可以重构古代沉积岩形成时的环境。
Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering), transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of modern processes to interpret geologic history through observations of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary structures. Sedimentology is a subdiscipline of geology. Sedimentary rocks cover up to 75% of the Earth's surface, record much of the Earth's history, and harbor the fossil record. Sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata. The premise that the processes affecting the earth today are the same as in the past is the basis for determining how sedimentary features in the rock record were formed. By comparing similar features today to features in the rock record—for example, by comparing modern sand dunes to dunes preserved in ancient aeolian sandstones—geologists reconstruct past environments.
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查看内容许可 ↗地层学（英语：stratigraphy）是地质学的一个分支，是地质学的基础学科，是在19世纪初发展起来的一个学科，最早用于研究沉积岩和火山喷出的层序。现在的研究包括地层的时代和地理分布，地层的分类，各种岩石之间的关系等。地层学根据主要研究对象不同可以分为岩石地层学、生物地层学和年代地层学。
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithostratigraphy (lithologic stratigraphy), biostratigraphy (biologic stratigraphy), and chronostratigraphy (stratigraphy by age). Several principles and laws come into play when using stratigraphy such as Principle of original horizontality, Law of superposition, Cross-cutting relationships, Principle of inclusions, Principle of faunal succession.
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查看内容许可 ↗地质年代学（英语：Geochronology）是利用岩石本身固有的特征，确定岩石、化石和沉积物存在年代的科学。绝对地质年代学测定可通过测定放射性同位素进行，而相对地质年代学则可使用古地磁学和稳定同位素比等方法。通过结合不同地质年代（以及生物地层学）的线索，可以增进岩石定年的精确度。
Geochronology is the science of determining the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, whereas relative geochronology is provided by tools such as paleomagnetism and stable isotope ratios. By combining multiple geochronological (and biostratigraphic) indicators the precision of the recovered age can be improved. Geochronology is different in application from biostratigraphy, which is the science of assigning sedimentary rocks to a known geological period via describing, cataloging and comparing fossil floral and faunal assemblages. Biostratigraphy does not directly provide an absolute age determination of a rock, but merely places it within an interval of time at which that fossil assemblage is known to have coexisted. Both disciplines work together hand in hand, however, to the point where they share the same system of naming strata (rock layers) and the time spans utilized to classify sublayers within a stratum.
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查看内容许可 ↗火山学（英语：Volcanology）是一门研究火山、熔岩、岩浆及相关地质学、地球物理学、和地球化学现象的学问。 研究火山学的人称为火山学家。火山学家是地质学家，他们研究火山的喷发活动和火山的形成，以及火山现在的和历史上的喷发。火山学家常常要实地造访火山（特别是活火山）来观察火山喷发，采集喷发的产物，例如火山喷发碎屑（例如火山灰或浮岩）、岩石及熔岩的样本。另外一个研究的重心是预测火山的喷发。目前并没有准确的方法可以预测火山的喷发，但是，预测火山的喷发如同预测地震一样可以拯救许多生命。 科学家中最危险的行业之一就是火山学家，因为突如其来的火山喷发随时可能在研究活火山时发生。
Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena (volcanism). The term volcanology is derived from the Latin word vulcan. Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire. A volcanologist is a geologist who studies the eruptive activity and formation of volcanoes and their current and historic eruptions. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, especially active ones, to observe volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions; there is currently no accurate way to do this, but predicting or forecasting eruptions, like predicting earthquakes, could save many lives.
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查看内容许可 ↗岩石学（英语：Petrology）是地质学的一个分支，是研究岩石的一门科学。岩石学主要研究岩石的化学成分、矿物成分、岩石的结构和构造，岩石的成因、变化规律、分布状况以及其实用的意义。岩石学分类对火成岩、沉积岩和变质岩进行研究。 岩石学的研究为找矿勘探、地下水开发、工程建设规划提供基础信息，其成果广泛应用到矿床学、地球化学、构造地质学等学科中。
Petrology (from Ancient Greek πέτρος (pétros) 'rock' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of') is the branch of geology that studies rocks, their mineralogy, composition, texture, structure and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together because both make heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and phase diagrams. Sedimentary petrology is commonly taught together with stratigraphy because it deals with the processes that form sedimentary rock. Modern sedimentary petrology is making increasing use of chemistry.
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查看内容许可 ↗水文地质学是研究地下水的科学。它研究与岩石圈、水圈、大气圈、生物圈以及人类活动相互作用下地下水水量和水质的时空变化规律，并研究如何运用这些规律去兴利除害，为人类服务。 水文地质学是从寻找和利用地下水源开始发展的，围绕实际应用，逐渐开展了理论研究。目前已形成了一系列分支。 地下水动力学 地下水动力学是研究关于地下水运动的基本理论，运用这些理论分析水文地质问题，建立相应的数学模型并提出恰当的计算方法，对地下水资源进行定量评价，预测地下水污染的发展趋势，控制地下水污染的学科。 水文地球化学 供水水文地质学 矿床水文地质学 农业水文地质学 区域水文地质学 古水文地质学 环境水文地质学 医学水文地质学
Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and hydrogeology are often used interchangeably, though hydrogeology is the most commonly used. Hydrogeology is the study of the laws governing the movement of subterranean water, the mechanical, chemical, and thermal interaction of this water with the porous solid, and the transport of energy, chemical constituents, and particulate matter by flow. Groundwater engineering is a branch of engineering which is concerned with groundwater movement and the design of wells, pumps, and drains. The main concerns in groundwater engineering include groundwater contamination, conservation of supplies, and water quality. Wells are constructed for use in developing nations, as well as for use in developed nations in places which are not connected to a city water system.
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查看内容许可 ↗重力异常（英语：Gravity anomaly）在大地测量学中用于描述真实重力与正常重力之间的差异。在大地水准面上，某点处的真实重力矢量与该点沿法线到参考椭球面上投影处的正常重力矢量之差，被称为该点处的重力异常矢量，该点处的重力异常则是这一重力异常矢量的大小。有时也称这一重力异常为混合重力异常，而将大地水准面上同一点处的真实重力矢量与正常重力矢量之差（即重力扰动）称为纯重力异常。重力异常矢量的方向被称为垂线偏差。
The gravity anomaly at a location on the Earth's surface is the difference between the observed value of gravity and the value predicted by a theoretical model. If the Earth were an ideal oblate spheroid of uniform density, then the gravity measured at every point on its surface would be given precisely by a simple algebraic expression. However, the Earth has a rugged surface and non-uniform composition, which distorts its gravitational field. The theoretical value of gravity can be corrected for altitude and the effects of nearby terrain, but it usually still differs slightly from the measured value. This gravity anomaly can reveal the presence of subsurface structures of unusual density. For example, a mass of dense ore below the surface will give a positive anomaly due to the increased gravitational attraction of the ore. A gravity survey is conducted by measuring the gravity anomaly at many locations in a region of interest, using a portable instrument called a gravimeter. Careful analysis of the gravity data allows geologists to make inferences about the subsurface geology.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗测井是通过钻井眼对地层进行详细记录。包括把样品带到地上直接观察，也包括把放到井眼里的仪器进行的物理测量。测井可在钻井工程的不同阶段进行，包括钻井，完井，生产和弃井。测井是为了钻探油气，地下水，勘探矿物和地热，也包括环境和土工技术研究。
Well logging, also known as borehole logging, is the practice of making a detailed record (a well log) of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole. The log may be based either on visual inspection of samples brought to the surface (geological logs) or on physical measurements made by instruments lowered into the hole (geophysical logs). Some types of geophysical well logs can be done during any phase of a well's history: drilling, completing, producing, or abandoning. Well logging is performed in boreholes drilled for the oil and gas, groundwater, mineral and geothermal exploration, as well as part of environmental, scientific and geotechnical studies.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗透地雷达（Ground-penetrating radar，缩写：GPR）是以雷达脉冲波探测地表以下状况并成像的仪器。这是以无线电谱上的微波（UHF/VHF）波段电磁波进行的一种无损检测方式，并接收因为地表下各种物体结构造成的雷达反射波。透地雷达可以在岩石、土壤、冰、淡水、人行道以及各种结构物等介质使用。透地雷达可探测到地表下的物质、材质变化、空隙和裂隙等。
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. It is a non-intrusive method of surveying the sub-surface to investigate underground utilities such as concrete, asphalt, metals, pipes, cables or masonry. This nondestructive method uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave band (UHF/VHF frequencies) of the radio spectrum, and detects the reflected signals from subsurface structures. GPR can have applications in a variety of media, including rock, soil, ice, fresh water, pavements and structures. In the right conditions, practitioners can use GPR to detect subsurface objects, changes in material properties, and voids and cracks. GPR uses high-frequency (usually polarized) radio waves, usually in the range 10 MHz to 2.6 GHz. A GPR transmitter and antenna emits electromagnetic energy into the ground. When the energy encounters a buried object or a boundary between materials having different permittivities, it may be reflected or refracted or scattered back to the surface.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗地球动力学是研究地球大尺度运动或整体性运动的各种力学过程、力源和介质的力学性质的固体地球物理学的一个分支学科。 地球动力学的任务就是分析这些现象，并透过这些现象寻求其力学机理，掌握这些现象出现和变化的规律,预期它们今后的发展趋势。地球自身的引力当然是推动构造运动的长期作用力，日、月引潮力，地球转动和摆动引起的惯性力也必须考虑。它们之中有的虽然极小，但可以起到触发构造运动的作用。地球内部物质的热运动所产生的力以及它们的粘滞性亦属必须考虑之列。地球模型是地球动力学的基础之一。在当代的地球动力学研究中，人们通常将地球看成是由地壳、地幔和地核 3部分组成（见地球内部的构造和物理性质）。这 3部分的相对大小、密度和它们的弹性系数、粘滞系数等力学参量尚无定值，各学者的采用值尚有差别,从而派生出许多模型，1066A、PREM就是当前常用的两个模型。地球动力学的最终目标就是了解地球整体及其所在系统（太阳系）的过去、现在和未来的行为，并利用这些认识为人类生存提供可持续发展的物质与环境基础。地球动力学方法也适用于其他行星的探索。
Geodynamics is a subfield of geophysics dealing with dynamics of the Earth. It applies physics, chemistry and mathematics to the understanding of how mantle convection leads to plate tectonics and geologic phenomena such as seafloor spreading, mountain building, volcanoes, earthquakes, or faulting. It also attempts to probe the internal activity by measuring magnetic fields, gravity, and seismic waves, as well as the mineralogy of rocks and their isotopic composition. Methods of geodynamics are also applied to exploration of other planets.
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查看内容许可 ↗磁异常或称地磁异常，在地球物理学是指在岩石内因为化学或磁性变化使地球磁场产生局部的改变。绘制某一区域的磁异常变化图对于侦测被上覆物质遮蔽的构造具有重要价值。映射的面积变化的宝贵检测结构覆材料所遮蔽。在海洋板块上平行于中洋脊连绵的带状磁场变化，是支持海底扩张的重要证据。磁异常可以有不同的尺度，但尺度大小并不代表异常的大小。磁异常可造成空间环境的扰动和航天器异常。
In geophysics, a magnetic anomaly is a local variation in the Earth's magnetic field resulting from variations in the chemistry or magnetism of the rocks. Mapping of variation over an area is valuable in detecting structures obscured by overlying material. The magnetic variation (geomagnetic reversals) in successive bands of ocean floor parallel with mid-ocean ridges was important evidence for seafloor spreading, a concept central to the theory of plate tectonics.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗地震波（英语：Seismic Wave）是指以地震为能量来源的波动。当地震发生时，人们通常会因为地震波的传播而感觉到地面“摇晃”。地震波的产生一般肇因于岩石破裂自然造成的构造地震，少部分来自其他自然或人为现象，如风、核试验和矿坑坍方所产生的地震；地震波也可以产生新的地震波。虽然地震在进行时大部分的能量都会在克服摩擦力中损失，只有少数以地震波的形式传播出去，但在人类经验中，地震波却因常与生活空间重叠及具备强大破坏力而成为多数人对地震的第一印象。 地震波的性质，来自于其母地震和传播沿途的地质环境，因此借由研究地震波，人类就有机会回推了解地震的起源与周围的地质构造，推进地震预警、建筑设计乃至于矿业工程的进展。换句话说，研究地震波，除了可以了解地震本身外，还可以用来一窥地球内部堂奥。由于地球很大，研究内部构造时透过挖深井等直观方法效果有限，因此分析地震波是目前人类最常用的勘测方式。研究地震波的科学，就可以促进人类对地震学、地球构造学、地球物理学、地球科学的了解。
A seismic wave is a mechanical wave of acoustic energy that travels through the Earth or another planetary body. It can result from an earthquake (or generally, a quake), volcanic eruption, magma movement, a large landslide, and a large man-made explosion that produces low-frequency acoustic energy. Seismic waves are studied by seismologists, who record the waves using seismometers, hydrophones (in water), or accelerometers. Seismic waves are distinguished from seismic noise (ambient vibration), which is persistent low-amplitude vibration arising from a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources. The propagation velocity of a seismic wave depends on the density and elasticity of the medium as well as the type of wave. Velocity tends to increase with depth through Earth's crust and mantle, but drops sharply going from the mantle to Earth's outer core. Earthquakes create distinct types of waves with different velocities. When recorded by a seismic observatory, their different travel times help scientists locate the quake's hypocenter.
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查看内容许可 ↗震中（英语：Epicenter）香港、马来西亚、台湾称震央，是指地震发生时，地震震源向上垂直投影到地面的位置。 地震的命名方法一般以震中所在地较为人熟悉的邻近地名为主，如台湾921集集大地震，因集集靠近震中，所以用集集为名；又如中国512汶川大地震，也是以震中汶川为名。
The epicenter (), epicentre, or epicentrum in seismology is the point on the Earth's surface directly above a hypocenter or focus, the point where an earthquake or an underground explosion originates.
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查看内容许可 ↗{{subst:copyedit/auto}} 地震层析成像（英语：seismic tomography）是一种利用天然地震或地震测量时用的爆炸物产生的地震波，包括纵波、横波和表面波，对地球地下进行的成像技术。地震断层扫描分辨率是根据波长、波源距离和地震仪阵列。利用地震仪接收到的数据，反演计算反射和折射波路径位置，进一步制出速度异常的 3维图像，后者可以被用来解释地层构造、热或成分的变化。地球科学家也使用这些图像来研究地核、地幔和板块构造过程。
Seismic tomography or seismotomography is a technique for imaging the subsurface of the Earth using seismic waves. The properties of seismic waves are modified by the material through which they travel. By comparing the differences in seismic waves recorded at different locations, it is possible to create a model of the subsurface structure. Most commonly, these seismic waves are generated by earthquakes or man-made sources such as explosions. Different types of waves, including P, S, Rayleigh, and Love waves can be used for tomographic images, though each comes with their own benefits and downsides and are used depending on the geologic setting, seismometer coverage, distance from nearby earthquakes, and required resolution. The model created by tomographic imaging is almost always a seismic velocity model, and features within this model may be interpreted as structural, thermal, or compositional variations.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗反射地震（或地震反射）（英语：Reflection Seismology）是一种地球物理的探索方法，它使用地震学原理从反射地震波中估算地球地下的特性。 该方法需要可控的地震能源，例如炸药或ToVex Blast，特殊气枪或地震振动器。反射地震类似于声纳和回声定位。
Reflection seismology (or seismic reflection) is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite or Tovex blast, a specialized air gun or a seismic vibrator. Reflection seismology is similar to sonar and echolocation.
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查看内容许可 ↗震源（英语：hypocenter），宏观上是指地震能量大量释放之处，而微观上是指首先发生地震波的地方，通常指地下岩层断裂错动的地区。在测震领域中，常将震源看作是一个理想化的面源或点源。其对应的震源深度——即震源垂直向上到地表的距离——也是最重要的地震基本参数之一。震级相同的地震，震源越深，影响范围越大，地表破坏越小；震源越浅，影响范围越小，地表破坏越大。一般地，使用米（m）或千米（km）作为震源深度的单位，用拉丁字母h作为符号表示震源深度。浅源地震的深度误差约为深度值的10%左右。震源愈深，相对误差愈小。
A hypocenter or hypocentre, also called ground zero or surface zero, is the point on the Earth's surface directly below a nuclear explosion, meteor air burst, or other mid-air explosion. In seismology, the hypocenter of an earthquake is its point of origin below ground; a synonym is the focus of an earthquake. Generally, the terms ground zero and surface zero are also used in relation to epidemics and other disasters to mark the point of the most severe damage or destruction. The term is distinguished from the term zero point in that the latter can also be located in the air, underground, or underwater.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗达西定律（英语：Darcy's law）是描述液体流过孔隙介质的本构方程。这个定律是法国工程师亨利·达西在1856年基于水流过沙的实验结果得到的。 此定律成为了地球科学的一个分支，水文地质学的基础；并且在生理学中也应用在对于血液与微血管的描述中。
Darcy's law is an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a porous medium and through a Hele-Shaw cell. The law was formulated by Henry Darcy based on results of experiments on the flow of water through beds of sand, forming the basis of hydrogeology, a branch of earth sciences. It is analogous to Ohm's law in electrostatics, linearly relating the volume flow rate of the fluid to the hydraulic head difference (which is often just proportional to the pressure difference) via the hydraulic conductivity. In fact, Darcy's law is a special case of the Stokes equation for the momentum flux, in turn deriving from the momentum Navier–Stokes equation. Darcy's law is analogous to Fourier's law in the field of heat conduction, Ohm's law in the field of electrical networks, and Fick's law in diffusion theory.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗P波（英语：primary wave）是在地震发生时最先被地震仪记录下来的地震体波。穿越地球内部的波（例如，地震波）被称为体波。相对于体波的是面波。体波可以分为P波和S波。P波意指（primary wave）或是压力波（pressure wave）。在所有地震波中，P波传递速度最快。因此发生地震时，P波最早抵达测站，并被地震仪纪录下来，这也是P波名称的由来。P波的P也能代表压力（pressure），来自于其震动传递类似声波，属于纵波的一种（或疏密波），传递时介质的震动方向与震波能量的传播方向平行。 对于地球内部构造的了解和推论，大部分是借由观测地震波中的体波。地震波在不同介质有不同传播时间和路径，在介质交界面时会引起反射、折射，以及相位的改变。地震学家利用这些特性来获得地球内部资讯。当体波穿越地球液态层时，P波在经过下部地幔与外地核时会稍许折射。造成P波在104°至140°间会有阴影区，令地震仪无法记录。
In continuum mechanics, a P wave (primary wave or pressure wave) is one of the two main types of elastic body waves or seismic waves. P waves travel faster than other seismic waves and hence are the first signal from an earthquake to arrive at any affected location or at a seismograph. P waves may be transmitted through gases, liquids, or solids.
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查看内容许可 ↗S波（S-wave，secondary wave）是二种体波（体波的命名是因为此波穿越地球内部，相对于体波的是面波）中之一。它是因地震而产生的，被地震仪记录下来。命名为S波（二次波，secondary wave）是因为它的速度仅次于P波（最快的地震波）。S波也可以代表剪切波（shear wave），因为S波是一种横波，地球内部粒子的震动方向与震波能量传递方向是垂直的。S波与P波不同的是，S波无法穿越外地核。所以S波的阴影区正对着地震的震源。 S波移动时是剪切波或横波，因此其运动方向与波的传播方向是垂直的，若要形象地描述S波，可以认为S波是挥动绳子时，绳子上传播的波，这与P波是不同的。P波是一种纵波，纵波就如振动的弹簧上传播的波，其形态就像蠕虫一样。S波通过弹性介质移动，而主要的恢复力来自于剪切效应。这些波是不发散的，遵守不可压缩介质的连续性方程： ∇ ⋅ u = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {u} =0}
In solid mechanics, S waves, secondary waves, or shear waves (sometimes called elastic S waves) are a type of elastic wave and are one of the two main types of elastic body waves, so named because they move through the body of an object, unlike surface waves. S waves are transverse waves, meaning that the direction of particle movement of an S wave is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, and the main restoring force comes from shear stress. Therefore, S waves cannot propagate in liquids with zero (or very low) viscosity; however, they may propagate in liquids with high viscosity. Similarly, S waves cannot travel through gases. The name secondary wave comes from the fact that they are the second type of wave to be detected by an earthquake seismograph, after the compressional primary wave, or P wave, because S waves travel more slowly in solids. Unlike P waves, S waves cannot travel through the molten outer core of the Earth, and this causes a shadow zone for S waves opposite to their origin.
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查看内容许可 ↗光线跟踪可以是下列意思： 光线跟踪，是三维计算机图形中的特殊渲染算法。 光线跟踪 (物理)，可用于分析光学。
Ray tracing is a method for calculating the path of waves or particles through a system. The method is practiced in two distinct, but related, forms: Ray tracing (physics), which is used for analyzing optical and other systems Ray tracing (graphics), which is used for 3D image generation
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗侵蚀作用（英语：erosion）是自然界的一种现象，是指地球的表面不断受到风、水的磨损。这个过程，陆地除了被侵蚀之外，蚀出的物质还会被带走，堆积在其他地方，主要堆积在海里。 侵蚀由水流、冰移或风吹造成。 而由雪、霜、阳光、雨水对地表的作用则叫做风化作用，暴露在空气中的岩石会受到天气影响，长期冷热交替，有些岩石会因而裂开。岩石中的水结冰时会膨胀，这个也会使岩石开裂。石头受到重力的挤压后突然减压，也会使岩石碎裂。雨水是稀酸，可溶化或改变岩石内的化学物质。植物的根和穴居动物也会加速风化。 因为风化而碎裂的石块会由水、冰、风带走，而如果水、冰、风内如有石块，即使非常细小，也能大大加强侵蚀的作用，改变地貌。
Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is distinct from weathering which involves no movement. Removal of rock or soil as clastic sediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by dissolution. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres. Agents of erosion include rainfall; bedrock wear in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows. The rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在电磁学里，相对电容率，又称为相对介电常数，定义为电容率与真空电容率的比例∶ ε r = d e f ε ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ {\frac {\varepsilon }{\varepsilon _{0}}}} ； 其中， ε r {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}} 是电介质的相对电容率， ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } 是电介质的电容率， ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} 是真空电容率。
The relative permittivity (in older texts, dielectric constant) is the permittivity of a material expressed as a ratio with the electric permittivity of a vacuum. A dielectric is an insulating material, and the dielectric constant of an insulator measures the ability of the insulator to store electric energy in an electrical field. Permittivity is a material's property that affects the Coulomb force between two point charges in the material. Relative permittivity is the factor by which the electric field between the charges is decreased relative to vacuum. Likewise, relative permittivity is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric, compared with a similar capacitor that has vacuum as its dielectric. Relative permittivity is also commonly known as the dielectric constant, a term still used but deprecated by standards organizations in engineering as well as in chemistry.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗电阻率（英语：resistivity），也称为体积电阻率或比电阻，是材料的特性，用于测量其电阻或抵抗电流的能力。 低电阻率表示材料容易通过电流。 电阻率通常用希腊字母ρ表示。电阻率的SI单位是欧姆·米（Ω· m）。例如，如果1 m3实心立方体材料在两个相对面上具有片状触点，这些触点之间的电阻为1 Ω，则材料的电阻率为1 Ω·m。 电导率（英语：conductivity），或比电导，是电阻率的倒数，代表材料传导电流的能力。 通常用希腊字母σ表示（西格玛），但特别在电气工程中，有时会用到字母κ（kappa ）和γ（gamma）。电导率的SI单位是西门子每米（S/m）。 电阻率和电导率是材料的内含性质。电阻和电导是相对应的外延属性，它们表现特定物体对电流相反的反应。
In physics, electrical resistivity and electrical conductivity are two intrinsic properties of materials that measure a material's local, intrinsic ability to conduct electric current. They are reciprocals of each other, so each can be deduced from the other. They are usually numbers or scalar fields, but can be generalized to tensor quantities when the material is non-isotropic, or to complex quantities in the setting of time-varying currents. Electrical resistivity (also called volume resistivity or specific electrical resistance) is a fundamental specific property of a material that measures its electrical resistance or how strongly it resists electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω⋅m). For example, if a 1 m3 solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite faces, and the resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1 Ω⋅m.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗风化作用（英语：weathering）为岩石、土壤以及矿物等与地球大气层接触而分解。侵蚀作用包括岩石和矿物经由媒介如水、冰及重力等引起其瓦解。侵蚀作用常伴随着搬运作用，要注意两者并非相同，风化作用着重于由内而外去崩解，侵蚀作用则是由外而内去剥落。 风化作用可以分为物理性与化学性。物理性的风化作用包括因为大气情况如热力、水、冰及压力导致岩石及土壤的分解；化学性的风化作用包括与大气化学物的直接反应，或与生物产生的化学反应，最终令岩石、土壤及矿物分解。 岩石分解后的物质与有机物质结合制成土壤。土壤的矿物成分取决于母质，所以由一种岩石形成的土壤常常会缺乏一种或多种肥沃土壤所需的矿物质，而由多种岩石混合形成的土壤（如冰川、风成或冲积沉积物）常常会形成肥沃土壤。
Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals (as well as wood and artificial materials) through contact with water, atmospheric gases, sunlight, and biological organisms. It occurs in situ (on-site, with little or no movement), and so is distinct from erosion, which involves the transport of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity. Weathering processes are either physical or chemical. The former involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through such mechanical effects as heat, water, ice, and wind. The latter covers reactions to water, atmospheric gases and biologically produced chemicals with rocks and soils. Water is the principal agent behind both kinds, though atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide and the activities of biological organisms are also important. Biological chemical weathering is also called biological weathering. The materials left after the rock breaks down combine with organic material to create soil. Many of Earth's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering, erosion and redeposition.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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