结构生物学Dissociation constant在化学、生物化学及药理学中，解离常数（英语：dissociation constant， K d {\displaystyle K_{d}} ）是一种特定类型的平衡常数，用于衡量一较大物体与另一较小组分分开（解离）的倾向，也可以描述配合物解体成组分分子或盐分裂为其组分离子。解离常数是缔合常数的倒数。对于一些特定的盐，解离常数亦可被称为电离常数。
In chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology, a dissociation constant (KD) is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate (dissociate) reversibly into smaller components, as when a complex falls apart into its component molecules, or when a salt splits up into its component ions. The dissociation constant is the inverse of the association constant. In the special case of salts, the dissociation constant can also be called an ionization constant.
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查看内容许可 ↗酶（英语：enzyme，/ˈɛnzaɪm/），又称酵素，是一类大分子生物催化剂。酶能加快化学反应的速度（即具有催化作用）。由酶催化的反应中，反应物称为底物，生成的物质称为产物。几乎所有细胞内的代谢过程都离不开酶。酶能大大加快这些过程中各化学反应进行的速率，使代谢产生的物质和能量能满足生物体的需求。细胞中酶的类型对可在该细胞中发生的代谢途径的类型起决定作用。对酶进行研究的学科称为酶学（enzymology）。 目前已知酶可以催化超过5000种生化反应。大部分酶是蛋白质，有少部分酶是具有催化活性的核糖核酸（RNA）分子，这些酶被称为核酶。酶的特异性是由其独特的三级结构决定的。 和所有的催化剂一样，酶通过降低反应激活能来加快化学反应速率。一些酶可以将底物转化为产物的速率提高数百万倍。一个比较极端的例子是乳清苷-5'-磷酸脱羧酶。该酶可以使在无催化剂条件下需要进行数百万年的化学反应在几毫秒内完成。从化学原理上讲，酶和其它所有催化剂一样，反应不会使其物质量发生变化。酶亦不能改变化学平衡，这一点和其它催化剂也是一样的。酶和其它催化剂的不同之处在于，它们的专一性要强得多。一些分子可以影响酶的活性。如酶抑制剂能降低酶的活性，酶激活剂能提高酶的活性。许多药物及毒物是酶的抑制剂。当超出或小于适宜的温度和pH值后，酶的活性会显著下降。 酶在工业和人们的日常生活中的应用也非常广泛。例如，药厂用特定的合成酶来合成抗生素；洗衣粉中添加酶能加速附着在衣物上的蛋白质、淀粉或脂肪渍的分解；嫩肉粉中加入木瓜蛋白酶能将蛋白质分解为稍小的分子，使肉的口感更嫩滑。
An enzyme is a biological macromolecule, usually a protein, that acts as a biological catalyst, accelerating chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. The molecules on which enzymes act are called substrates, which are converted into products. Nearly all metabolic processes within a cell depend on enzyme catalysis to occur at biologically relevant rates. A metabolic pathway is typically composed of a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps. The study of enzymes is known as enzymology, and a related field focuses on pseudoenzymes—proteins that have lost catalytic activity but may retain regulatory or scaffolding functions, often indicated by alterations in their amino acid sequences or unusual 'pseudocatalytic' behavior. Enzymes are known to catalyze over 5,000 types of biochemical reactions. Other biological catalysts include catalytic RNA molecules, or ribozymes, which are sometimes classified as enzymes despite being composed of RNA rather than protein.
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查看内容许可 ↗荧光（英语：fluorescence）是光致冷发光现象，可以在气体、液体或固体化学体系中发生。当某种常温物质分子在单重基态吸收某种波长的入射光（通常是紫外线或X光）后被激发至单重激发态而产生的。当电子从激发态返回到基态时（几乎立即（大约在 10^-8 秒内），是由于材料中的原子受到激发后会释放出一个能量较低、波长较长的光子，其能量低于之前吸收的光子（通常波长比入射光的波长，在可见光波段）而且由于再发射过程非常迅速，一旦激发源被移除，荧光便会立即停止，而不像磷光那样会持续发光一段时间。（其与磷光不同，是因为电子的自旋方向仍然与基态电子保持配对。）有这性质的出射光就称为荧光。一般以持续发光时间来分辨荧光或磷光，持续发光时间短于10−8秒的称为荧光，长于10−8秒的称为磷光(原因详见磷光)，严谨的定义基于发光的物理机制，而非持续时间。在日常生活，人们通常把各种微弱的光都一律称为荧光。
Fluorescence is one of two kinds of photoluminescence, the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. When exposed to ultraviolet radiation, many substances will glow (fluoresce) with colored visible light. The color of the light emitted depends on the chemical composition of the substance. Fluorescent materials generally cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops. This distinguishes them from the other type of light emission, phosphorescence. Phosphorescent materials continue to emit light for some time after the radiation stops. This difference in duration is a result of quantum spin effects. Fluorescence occurs when a photon from incoming radiation is absorbed by a molecule, exciting it to a higher energy level, followed by the emission of light as the molecule returns to a lower energy state. The emitted light may have a longer wavelength and, therefore, a lower photon energy than the absorbed radiation.
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查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质组（也称蛋白质体，proteome），是在特定时间内一个由基因组、细胞、组织、或生物体表达的整套蛋白质。 它是在给定时间，在给定条件下在给定类型的细胞或生物中表达的蛋白质的集合。 研究蛋白质组的学科就是蛋白质组学。
A proteome is the entire set of proteins that is, or can be, expressed by a genome, cell, tissue, or organism at a certain time. It is the set of expressed proteins in a given type of cell or organism, at a given time, under defined conditions. Proteomics is the study of the proteome.
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查看内容许可 ↗基因表达（英语：gene expression）又称基因表现，是用基因中的信息来合成基因产物的过程。产物通常是蛋白质，但对于非蛋白质编码基因，如tRNA和小核RNA（snRNA），产物则是RNA。所有已知生物都通过基因表达来生成生命所需的高分子物质。 基因表达的过程可概分为：DNA转录、RNA剪接、RNA转译、蛋白质转译后修饰，这四大步骤。基因表达调控控制细胞的结构与功能，同时也是细胞分化、形态发生及生物体的多功能性和适应性的基础。不同的时间、不同的环境，以及不同部位的细胞，或是基因在细胞中的含量差异，皆可能使基因产生不同的表现。基因调节也可以作为进化变化的底物，因为基因表达的时间，位置和数量的控制可以对基因在细胞或多细胞生物体中的功能（作用）具有深远的影响。 在遗传学中，基因表达是基因型产生表现型（即可观察的性状）的最基本的层次。
Gene expression is the process by which the information contained within a gene is used to produce a functional gene product, such as a protein or a functional RNA molecule. This process involves multiple steps, including the transcription of the gene's sequence into RNA. For protein-coding genes, this RNA is further translated into a chain of amino acids that folds into a protein, while for non-coding genes, the resulting RNA itself serves a functional role in the cell. Gene expression enables cells to utilize the genetic information in genes to carry out a wide range of biological functions. While expression levels can be regulated in response to cellular needs and environmental changes, some genes are expressed continuously with little variation.
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查看内容许可 ↗Western印迹法（英语：Western blot）或称“蛋白质转渍法”、“免疫印迹法”（immunoblot）或“西式吸印杂交”，是在分子生物学、生物化学和免疫遗传学中常用的一种实验方法，也是HIV检测的方法之一。 利用特定抗体能够专一结合其抗原蛋白质的原理来对样品进行着色，通过分析着色的位置和着色深度获得特定蛋白质在所分析的细胞或组织中的表达情况的信息，来分析检测特定蛋白质的生物学检测技术。 发明者一般认为是美国斯坦福大学的乔治·斯塔克（George Stark）。在尼尔·伯奈特（Neal Burnette）于1981年所著的《分析生物化学》（Analytical Biochemistry）中首次被称为“Western印迹法”。
The Western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot), or Western blotting, is a widely used analytical technique in molecular biology and immunogenetics to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract, and to visualize, distinguish, and quantify the different proteins in a complicated protein combination. Western blot technique uses three elements to achieve its task of separating a specific protein from a complex: separation by size, transfer of protein to a solid support, and marking target protein using a primary and secondary antibody to visualize. A synthetic or animal-derived antibody (known as the primary antibody) is created that recognizes and binds to a specific target protein. The electrophoresis membrane is washed in a solution containing the primary antibody, before excess antibody is washed off. A secondary antibody is added which recognizes and binds to the primary antibody.
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查看内容许可 ↗米-门二氏动力学（英语：Michaelis-Menten kinetics），又称米氏动力学，以德国生物化学家莱昂诺尔·米夏埃利斯和加拿大医师莫德·门滕的名字命名，是酶动力学中一个极为重要的方程，可以描述多种非变异构酶动力学现象，其表示式为： V 0 = V m a x [ S ] K M + [ S ] {\displaystyle V_{0}=V_{max}{\frac {[S]}{K_{M}+[S]}}}
In biochemistry, Michaelis–Menten kinetics, named after Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten, is the simplest case of enzyme kinetics, applied to enzyme-catalysed reactions involving the transformation of one substrate into one product. In 1913, Michaelis and Menten expanded on Victor Henri's fundamental equation of enzyme kinetics, which was established in 1902. It takes the form of a differential equation describing the reaction rate v {\displaystyle v} (rate of formation of product P, with concentration p {\displaystyle p} ) as a function of a {\displaystyle a} , the concentration of the substrate A (using the symbols recommended by the IUBMB).
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查看内容许可 ↗亲和色谱法（英语：Affinity chromatography，又称为亲和层析）是一种利用固定相的结合特性来分离分子的色谱方法。亲和色谱在凝胶过滤色谱柱上连接与待分离的物质有一定结合能力的分子，并且它们的结合是可逆的，在改变流动相条件时二者还能相互分离。亲和色谱可以用来从混合物中纯化或浓缩某一分子，也可以用来去除或减少混合物中某一分子的含量。
Affinity chromatography is a method of separating a biomolecule from a mixture, based on a highly specific macromolecular binding interaction between the biomolecule and another substance. The specific type of binding interaction depends on the biomolecule of interest; antigen and antibody, enzyme and substrate, receptor and ligand, or protein and nucleic acid binding interactions are frequently exploited for isolation of various biomolecules. Affinity chromatography is useful for its high selectivity and resolution of separation, compared to other chromatographic methods.
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查看内容许可 ↗在生物化学中，若已经有配体分子结合在一个高分子上，那么新的配体分子与这个高分子的结合作用就常常会被增强（亦被称作协同结合）。以阿奇博尔德·希尔命名的希尔系数（Hill coefficient）提供了量化这种效应的方法。 希尔方程（英语：Hill equation）描述了高分子被配体饱和的分数，是一个关于配体浓度的函数；被用于确定受体结合到酶或受体上的合同性程度。此方程首次于1910年由阿奇博尔德·希尔阐释出来以表述为何血红蛋白的氧气结合曲线会呈现S型。 当系数为1时，表明结合作用是完全独立的，而不取决于已经有多少配体已经结合上去。大于一的数表示正协同，而小于一的数表示负协同。希尔系数最初被设计出来是用于解释氧气协同地结合到血红蛋白上的过程（此系统的希尔系数为2.8～3）。
In biochemistry and pharmacology, the Hill equation refers to two closely related equations that reflect the binding of ligands to macromolecules, as a function of the ligand concentration. A ligand is "a substance that forms a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose", and a macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as a protein, with a complex structure of components. Protein-ligand binding typically changes the structure of the target protein, thereby changing its function in a cell. The distinction between the two Hill equations is whether they measure occupancy or response. The Hill equation reflects the occupancy of macromolecules: the fraction that is saturated or bound by the ligand. This equation is formally equivalent to the Langmuir isotherm. Conversely, the Hill equation proper reflects the cellular or tissue response to the ligand: the physiological output of the system, such as muscle contraction. The Hill equation was originally formulated by Archibald Hill in 1910 to describe the sigmoidal O2 binding curve of hemoglobin.
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查看内容许可 ↗在生物化学和药理学中，配体（英语：ligand）是指一种能与受体结合以产生某种生理效果的物质。在蛋白质—配体复合物中，配体通常是与靶蛋白特定结合位点相连的信号触发分子。而在DNA—配体复合物中，与DNA双链相连的配体在一般情况下可以是任何的小分子或离子甚至是蛋白质。值得注意的是，生物化学中的配体和化学中定义的配体（比如铜氨络离子中，氨是铜离子的配体）并无实际联系，配体未必要结合在金属原子上。 配体与受体的连接由诸如离子键的化学键或氢键、范德华力等分子间作用力维系。它们的连接过程通常是可逆的，配体与受体之间形成的真正难以断开的共价键在生物界是相当罕见的。 配体在与受体结合后，可以改变它们的立体构型，而立体构型又常常决定了蛋白质的功能。配体包括底物、酶抑制剂、酶激活剂、以及神经递质。配体与受体结合的难易度与结合后的强度叫做亲和力。两者越容易结合，结合后结合的强度越大，则亲和力越强，反之亦然。亲和力不仅由配体和受体间的直接的相互作用决定，还由溶剂效应决定，后者间接主导溶液中的非共价性结合。 用放射性同位素标记的放射性配体已被用作正电子发射计算机断层扫描（PET）中的放射性示踪剂。此外，这种物质还被用于在体外进行的配体—受体结合研究。
In biochemistry and pharmacology, a ligand is a substance that forms a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose. The etymology stems from Latin ligare, which means 'to bind'. In protein-ligand binding, the ligand is usually a molecule which produces a signal by binding to a site on a target protein. The binding typically results in a change of conformational isomerism (conformation) of the target protein. In DNA-ligand binding studies, the ligand can be a small molecule, ion, or protein which binds to the DNA double helix. The relationship between ligand and binding partner is a function of charge, hydrophobicity, and molecular structure. Binding occurs by intermolecular forces, such as ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces. The association or docking is actually reversible through dissociation. Measurably irreversible covalent bonding between a ligand and target molecule is atypical in biological systems.
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查看内容许可 ↗催化三联体，又称催化金三角，通常指在水解酶和转移酶的活性位点中心同时作用的三个氨基酸残基（如蛋白酶、酰胺酶、酯酶、酰基转移酶、脂酶和β-内酰胺酶）。用于共价催化的亲核残基一般是酸-碱-亲核三联体。残基会形成一个电荷中继网络，以极化和激活亲核试剂，来进攻底物形成共价中间体，然后中间体水解，再生出游离的酶。亲核试剂大多是丝氨酸或半胱氨酸，也有少量是苏氨酸。 因为酶会折叠成复杂的三维结构，催化三联体的残基可能在其所在的氨基酸序列（一级结构）中离得很远，但最后它们将会折叠到一起。 虽然在功能上（甚至是三联体中的亲核体）进化趋异，催化三联体却是趋同进化的最好案例。对催化的化学约束使得至少23个独立的蛋白质超家族进化出了相同的催化方法。生物化学中，研究得最透彻之一的就是这些反应的作用机理。
A catalytic triad is a set of three coordinated amino acid residues that can be found in the active site of some enzymes. Catalytic triads are most commonly found in hydrolase and transferase enzymes (e.g. proteases, amidases, esterases, acylases, lipases and β-lactamases). An acid-base-nucleophile triad is a common motif for generating a nucleophilic residue for covalent catalysis. The residues form a charge-relay network to polarise and activate the nucleophile, which attacks the substrate, forming a covalent intermediate which is then hydrolysed to release the product and regenerate free enzyme. The nucleophile is most commonly a serine or cysteine, but occasionally threonine or even selenocysteine. The 3D structure of the enzyme brings together the triad residues in a precise orientation, even though they may be far apart in the sequence (primary structure). As well as divergent evolution of function (and even the triad's nucleophile), catalytic triads show some of the best examples of convergent evolution.
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查看内容许可 ↗假发现率（False discovery rate, FDR）完善了对多重假设测试的检验， F D R = Q e = E [ Q ] , {\displaystyle \mathrm {FDR} =Q_{e}=\mathrm {E} \!\left[Q\right],} 其中E表示期望， Q = V / R = V / ( V + S ) {\displaystyle Q=V/R=V/(V+S)} ，V表示错误拒绝零假设的数目，R表示拒绝零假设的数目。R取0时FDR直接取0，写成一句话就是 F D R = E [ V / R | R > 0 ] ⋅ P (…
In statistics, the false discovery rate (FDR) is a method of conceptualizing the rate of type I errors in null hypothesis testing when conducting multiple comparisons. FDR-controlling procedures are designed to control the FDR, which is the expected proportion of "discoveries" (rejected null hypotheses) that are false (incorrect rejections of the null). Equivalently, the FDR is the expected ratio of the number of false positive classifications (false discoveries) to the total number of positive classifications (rejections of the null). The total number of rejections of the null include both the number of false positives (FP) and true positives (TP). Simply put, FDR = FP / (FP + TP). FDR-controlling procedures provide less stringent control of Type I errors compared to family-wise error rate (FWER) controlling procedures (such as the Bonferroni correction), which control the probability of at least one Type I error. Thus, FDR-controlling procedures have greater power, at the cost of increased numbers of Type I errors.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗遗传密码（Genetic code）又称遗传编码，是遗传信息的传递规则，将DNA或mRNA序列以三个核苷酸为一组的“密码子（codon）”翻译为蛋白质的氨基酸序列，以用于蛋白质合成。几乎所有的生物都使用同样的遗传密码，称为“标准遗传密码”；即使是非细胞结构的病毒，它们也是使用标准遗传密码。有些具感染性的致病因子，使用一些稍微不同的遗传密码，如朊毒体以蛋白质为遗传密码。密码子简并性是遗传密码的突出特征。
Genetic code is a set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences of nucleotide triplets or codons) into proteins. Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which links proteinogenic amino acids in an order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA), using transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA three nucleotides at a time. The genetic code is highly similar among all organisms and can be expressed in a simple table with 64 entries. The codons specify which amino acid will be added next during protein biosynthesis. With some exceptions, a three-nucleotide codon in a nucleic acid sequence specifies a single amino acid. The vast majority of genes are encoded with a single scheme (see the RNA codon table). That scheme is often called the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though variant codes (such as in mitochondria) exist.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗甲基化（英语：methylation）指向底物引入甲基的过程，一般是以甲基取代氢原子。 在生物系统内，甲基化是经酶催化的，这种甲基化涉及重金属修饰、基因表达的调控、蛋白质功能的调节以及核糖核酸（RNA）加工。重金属修饰可以在生物系统外发生。组织样本的化学甲基化也是组织染色的方法之一。
Methylation, in the chemical sciences, is the addition of a methyl group on a substrate, or the substitution of an atom (or group) by a methyl group. Methylation is a form of alkylation, with a methyl group replacing a hydrogen atom. These terms are commonly used in chemistry, biochemistry, soil science, and biology. In biological systems, methylation is catalyzed by enzymes; such methylation can be involved in modification of heavy metals, regulation of gene expression, regulation of protein function, and RNA processing. In vitro methylation of tissue samples is also a way to reduce some histological staining artifacts. The reverse of methylation is demethylation.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗寡核苷酸（oligonucleotides）又称寡核糖核苷酸，是短 DNA 或 RNA低聚物，在基因检测、研究和法医学方面有广泛的应用。寡核苷酸通常在实验室里通过固相化学合成法制备，并可以按照用户的需求合成指测序列的小片段核酸，对基因合成、聚合酶链式反应（PCR）、DNA测序、分子克隆至关重要。在自然界中，寡核苷酸通常以小RNA分子的形式出现 ，在基因表达的调控中发挥作用（如microRNA）；或者是较大核酸分子分解后的降解中间体。 寡核苷酸的特点是由构成整个分子的核苷酸残基序列决定的。寡核苷酸的长度通常用"-mer"（来自希腊语meros，代表"部分"的意思）来表示。例如，具有6个核苷酸（nucleotide, nt）的寡核苷酸，被称为六聚体，而一个25 nt的寡核苷酸通常被称为 "25-mer"。寡核苷酸很容易以序列互补的方式与各自的互补寡核苷酸、DNA或RNA结合形成双链体，或较少的更高级别的混合体。这一基本特性是使用寡核苷酸作为探针来检测DNA或RNA特测序列的基础。使用寡核苷酸的应用包括DNA微阵列，Southern印迹，等位基因特异性寡核苷酸分析， 荧光原位杂交（FISH），PCR和人工基因的合成。 寡核苷酸由2'-脱氧核糖核苷酸组成，可以在骨架上或脱氧核糖的2号位进行修饰，以达到不同的药理效果。这些修饰使寡核苷酸具有新的特性，使其成为反义的关键因素。
Oligonucleotides are short DNA or RNA molecules, oligomers, that have a wide range of applications in genetic testing, research, and forensics. Commonly made in the laboratory by solid-phase chemical synthesis, these small fragments of nucleic acids can be manufactured as single-stranded molecules with any user-specified sequence, and so are vital for artificial gene synthesis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, molecular cloning and as molecular probes. In nature, oligonucleotides are usually found as small RNA molecules that function in the regulation of gene expression (e.g. microRNA), or are degradation intermediates derived from the breakdown of larger nucleic acid molecules. Oligonucleotides are characterized by the sequence of nucleotide residues that make up the entire molecule. The length of the oligonucleotide is usually denoted by "-mer" (from Greek meros, "part"). For example, an oligonucleotide of six nucleotides (nt) is a hexamer, while one of 25 nt would usually be called a "25-mer".
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗合成生物学（英语：synthetic biology）是将生物科学应用到日常生活中的一种崭新方式。英国伦敦的皇家科学院（Royal Society）认为：合成生物学结合了其他领域的知识与工具，涉及的领域包括系统生物学、基因工程、机械工程、机电工程、信息论、物理学、纳米技术及电脑模拟等等。 目前，合成生物学已在多个行业落实应用，例如农业、能源、制造业及医学等等。
Synthetic biology (SynBio) is a multidisciplinary scientific field that applies the principles of engineering to develop new biological parts, devices, and systems or to redesign existing systems found in nature. The field encompasses a broad range of methodologies from various disciplines, such as biochemistry, biotechnology, biomaterials, material science/engineering, genetic engineering, molecular biology, molecular engineering, systems biology, membrane science, biophysics, chemical and biological engineering, electrical and computer engineering, control engineering and evolutionary biology. It includes designing and constructing biological modules, biological systems, and biological machines, or re-designing existing biological systems for useful purposes. Additionally, it is the branch of science that focuses on the new abilities of engineering into existing organisms to redesign them for useful purposes.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗GC含量（GC-content，guanine-cytosine content）是分子生物学和遗传学的术语，指研究对象（例如放线菌）的全基因组（DNA 或 RNA 分子）或其片段中，含氮碱基鸟嘌呤（G）或胞嘧啶（C）任何一个所占的百分比。一种生物的基因组或特定DNA、RNA片段有特定的GC含量。 在DNA链中G和C是以三个氢键相连，而T和A则是两个氢键相连的。氢键的多少体现连接的能量，氢键多的不容易被打断。 在双链DNA中，腺嘌呤与胸腺嘧啶（A/T）之比，以及鸟嘌呤与胞嘧啶（G/C）之比都是1。但是，（A+T）/（G+C）之比则随DNA的种类不同而异。GC含量愈高，DNA的密度也愈高，同时热及碱不易使之变性，因此利用这一特性便可进行DNA的分离或测定。 测定GC含量的方法有：Tm法，HPLC法
In molecular biology and genetics, GC-content (or G+C content or guanine-cytosine content) is the percentage of nitrogenous bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that are either guanine (G) or cytosine (C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out of an implied four total bases, also including adenine and thymine in DNA and adenine and uracil in RNA. GC-content may be given for a certain fragment of DNA or RNA or for an entire genome. When it refers to a fragment, it may denote the GC-content of an individual gene or section of a gene (domain), a group of genes or gene clusters, a non-coding region, or a synthetic oligonucleotide such as a primer.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗表观基因组（英语：Epigenome）是一组基因。改变表观基因会导致染色体结构以及基因作用发生变化。表观基因参与基因表达、个体发展、组织分化和转座子的抑制过程。不同于其底层的基因，表观基因对于个体而言并不是基本静态不变的，而是可以被环境因素动态更改的。表观基因现在是癌症研究的热门话题之一。 人类肿瘤由 DNA 甲基化和组蛋白修改模式的破坏造成。癌细胞表观基因异常状态的特点是：普遍基因的甲基化比例较低、而肿瘤抑制基因的CpG岛启动子甲基化比例过高、关键基因的组蛋白发生改变、总体上体现出单乙酰和三甲基组蛋白 H4 缺失。 关于表观基因的很多问题现在都还未被弄清。一些人已经提议启动人类表观基因组计划。人类表观基因组先驱计划，作为全面人类表观基因组计划的先导，旨在识别并分类人类基因中的甲基化异位点（MVP, Methylation Variable Positions）。列序技术方面的进步使得人们现在得以通过一系列分子方法对表观基因状态进行基因级别的测序。 NIH 路线图表观基因计划 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）的目标之一是从正常、健康的人类个体的各种细胞系、原代细胞、和主要分化中广泛选取的表观基因组中生成人类参考表观基因组。路线图表观基因组计划研究所得的数据可从人类表观基因地图册 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）下载、浏览，这些数据可分为五类，分别是对表观基因组和表观基因组各状态的影响的不同的方面进行测序的结果： 组蛋白修改：染色质免疫沉淀测序（ChIP-Seq）使用抗各种组蛋白修饰变体的抗体，从而鉴定出全基因组组蛋白修饰类型。 DNA甲基化：全基因组亚硫酸氢盐测序，简化代表亚硫酸氢盐测序（RRBS），甲基化DNA免疫沉淀测序（MeDIP-Seq），与甲基化-敏感限制性酶测序（MRE-Seq）可以不同分辨率鉴定DNA在基因组上甲基化的位点，分辨率最佳可达碱基等级。 染色体可达性：DNase I hypersensitive sites Sequencing（DNase-Seq）可鉴定染色质开放的区域。 基因表达：RNA测序和表达阵列可鉴定基因表现水准或蛋白质编码基因。 小RNA表达：smRNA-Seq可鉴定主要是miRNA等小非编码RNA（small noncoding RNA，snRNA）的表现。 从健康个体得到的参考表观基因组为路线图表观基因组计划的第二个目标——寻找疾病状态下（比如阿兹海默病人的）表观基因的变化——打下了基础。 关于测定参考表观基因组的国际合作，近来正通过国际人类表观基因组联合会 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）启动。
In biology, the epigenome of an organism is the collection of chemical changes to its DNA and histone proteins that affects when, where, and how the DNA is expressed; these changes can be passed down to an organism's offspring via transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Changes to the epigenome can result in changes to the structure of chromatin and changes to the function of the genome. The human epigenome, including DNA methylation and histone modification, is maintained through cell division (both mitosis and meiosis). The epigenome is essential for normal development and cellular differentiation, enabling cells with the same genetic code to perform different functions. The human epigenome is dynamic and can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and toxins. The epigenome is involved in regulating gene expression, development, tissue differentiation, and suppression of transposable elements. Unlike the underlying genome, which remains largely static within an individual, the epigenome can be dynamically altered by environmental conditions.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗CRISPR（IPA：/ˈkrɪspər/；DJ：/ˈkrispə/；KK：/ˈkrɪspɚ/）是由日本科学家于1987年在大肠杆菌的基因组中发现到特别规律的DNA序列。即某一小段DNA会一直重复，重复片段之间又有相等长的间隔，此序列就是“Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats，简称： CRISPR”亦可称“CRISPR-associated proteins，简称： Cap”；中文各别译为“规律间隔成簇短回文重复序列”和“规律间隔成簇短回文重复序列及其相关蛋白基因”。 CRISPR是存在于细菌、古菌中的一种基因，该类基因组中含有曾经攻击过该细菌的病毒之基因片段。细菌透过这些基因片段来侦测并抵抗相同病毒的攻击，并摧毁其DNA。这类基因组是细菌免疫系统的关键组成部分。透过这些基因组，人类可以准确且有效地编辑生物体内的部分基因，也就是CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑技术。
CRISPR (; acronym for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a family of DNA sequences found in the genomes of prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria and archaea. Each sequence within an individual prokaryotic CRISPR is derived from a DNA fragment of a bacteriophage that had previously infected the prokaryote or one of its ancestors. These sequences are used to detect and destroy DNA from similar bacteriophages during subsequent infections. Hence these sequences play a key role in the antiviral (i.e. anti-phage) defense system of prokaryotes and provide a form of heritable, acquired immunity. CRISPR is found in approximately 50% of sequenced bacterial genomes and nearly 90% of sequenced archaea. Cas9 (or "CRISPR-associated protein 9") is an enzyme that uses CRISPR sequences as a guide to recognize and open up specific strands of DNA that are complementary to the CRISPR sequence. Cas9 enzymes together with CRISPR sequences form the basis of a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9 that can be used to edit genes within living organisms.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗向导RNA（guide RNA，gRNA），也称为单链向导RNA（single guide RNA，sgRNA）。是作用于动质体（kinetoplastid）体内一种称为RNA编辑（RNA editing）的后转录修饰过程中。也是一种小型非编码RNA。可与pre-mRNA配对，并在其中插入一些尿嘧啶（U），产生具有作用的mRNA。
Guide RNA (gRNA) or single guide RNA (sgRNA) is a short sequence of RNA that guides a CRISPR-associated protein to its nucleic acid sequence target by Watson-Crick base pairing. In bacteria and archaea, gRNAs are a part of the CRISPR-Cas system that serves as an adaptive immune defense that protects the organism from viruses. Here the short gRNAs serve as detectors of foreign DNA and direct the Cas-enzymes that degrades the foreign nucleic acid.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗核糖体结合位点（英语：Ribosome-binding site），简称RBS，是位于信使核糖核酸（mRNA）起始密码子上游，在翻译起始时可结合核糖体的序列。
A ribosome binding site, or ribosomal binding site (RBS), is a sequence of nucleotides upstream of the start codon of an mRNA transcript that is responsible for the recruitment of a ribosome during the initiation of translation. Mostly, RBS refers to bacterial sequences, although internal ribosome entry sites (IRES) have been described in mRNAs of eukaryotic cells or viruses that infect eukaryotes. Ribosome recruitment in eukaryotes is generally mediated by the 5' cap present on eukaryotic mRNAs.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗酶学委员会编号或酶编号（英语：Enzyme Commission number），简称EC编号或EC号（EC number），是一种基于酶催化化学反应而制定数字分类方案。作为酶命名法 / 酶学委员会命名法（enzyme nomenclature）系统，同时会为各种酶给予一个建议的名称，且每个EC编号都与相应酶催化反应的推荐名称相关联。 EC编号并非针对不同种类的酶，而是针对酶催化的反应。如果不同的酶（例如来自不同生物体的酶）催化相同的反应，则它们会获得相同的EC编号。此外，通过趋同进化，完全不同的蛋白质折叠可以催化相同的反应（这些有时被称为非同源同功能酶）因此会被分配相同的EC编号。相比之下，联合蛋白数据库标识符通过氨基酸序列唯一地指定蛋白质。
The Enzyme Commission number (EC number) is a numerical classification scheme for enzymes, based on the chemical reactions they catalyze. As a system of enzyme nomenclature, every EC number is associated with a recommended name for the corresponding enzyme-catalyzed reaction. EC numbers do not specify enzymes but enzyme-catalyzed reactions. If different enzymes (for instance from different organisms) catalyze the same reaction, then they receive the same EC number. Furthermore, through convergent evolution, completely different protein folds can catalyze an identical reaction (these are sometimes called non-homologous isofunctional enzymes) and therefore would be assigned the same EC number. By contrast, UniProt identifiers uniquely specify a protein by its amino acid sequence.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在生物信息学中，FASTA格式是一种用于记录核酸序列或肽序列的文本格式，其中的核酸或氨基酸均以单个字母编码呈现。该格式同时还允许在序列之前定义名称和编写注释。这一格式最初由FASTA软件包定义，但现今已是生物信息学领域的一项标准。 FASTA简明的格式降低了序列操纵和分析的难度，令序列可被文本处理工具和诸如Python、Ruby和Perl等脚本语言处理。
In bioinformatics and biochemistry, the FASTA format is a text-based format for representing either nucleotide sequences or amino acid (protein) sequences, in which nucleotides or amino acids are represented using single-letter codes. The format allows for sequence names and comments to precede the sequences. It originated from the FASTA software package and has since become a near-universal standard in bioinformatics. The simplicity of FASTA format makes it easy to manipulate and parse sequences using text-processing tools and scripting languages.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗Ensembl是一项生物信息学研究计划，旨在开发一种能够对真核生物基因组进行自动诠释（automatic annotation）并加以维护的软件。该计划由英国维康基金桑格研究院及欧洲分子生物学实验室所属分部欧洲生物信息研究所共同协作运营，这是为了回应人类基因组计划即将完而于1999年启动的。在存在10年之后，Ensembl的目标仍然是为遗传学家，分子生物学家和其他研究人员研究我们自己的物种和其他脊椎动物和模式生物的基因组而提供集中的资源。Ensembl是几个知名的基因组浏览器之一，用于检索基因组学信息。 相似的数据库和浏览器还有美国国家生物技术信息中心（National Center for Biotechnology Information，简称NCBI）和加州大学圣克鲁兹分校的UCSC基因组浏览器。
Ensembl genome database project is a scientific project at the European Bioinformatics Institute, which provides a centralized resource for geneticists, molecular biologists and other researchers studying the genomes of our own species and other vertebrates and model organisms. Ensembl is one of several well known genome browsers for the retrieval of genomic information. Similar databases and browsers are found at NCBI and the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗FASTQ格式是一种保存生物序列（通常为核酸序列）及其测序质量得分信息的文本格式。序列与质量得分皆由单个ASCII字符表示。 该格式最初由维尔康姆基金会桑格研究所开发，旨在将FASTA格式序列及其质量数据集成在一起。而目前，FASTQ格式已经成为了保存高通量测序结果的事实标准。
FASTQ format is a text-based format for storing both a biological sequence (usually nucleotide sequence) and its corresponding quality scores. Both the sequence letter and quality score are each encoded with a single ASCII character for brevity. It was originally developed at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute to bundle a FASTA formatted sequence and its quality data, but has become the de facto standard for storing the output of high-throughput sequencing instruments such as the Illumina Genome Analyzer.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗.fcs文件格式全称为英语：Flow Cytometry Standard，是流式细胞术的通用文件档案格式，由国际流式细胞学会（International Society for Advancement of Cytometry，ISAC）开发和维护，1984年公布第一版，2020年更新到3.2版。
Flow Cytometry Standard (FCS) is a data file standard for the reading and writing of data from flow cytometry experiments. The FCS specification has traditionally been developed and maintained by the International Society for Advancement of Cytometry (ISAC). FCS used to be the only widely adopted file format in flow cytometry. Recently, additional standard file formats have been developed by ISAC. The most recent published specification is FCS 3.2.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗Folding@home（简称FAH或F@h）是一个研究蛋白质折叠、误折、聚合及由此引起的相关疾病的分布式计算工程。由斯坦福大学化学系的潘德实验室（Pande Lab）主持，于2000年10月1日正式启动。这包括蛋白质折叠的过程和蛋白质的运动，并且依赖于在志愿者的个人计算机上运行的模拟。Folding@home 目前位于宾夕法尼亚大学，由维杰·潘德(Vijay Pande)的前学生Greg Bowman领导。 Folding@home现时是世界上最大的分布式计算计划，于2007年为吉尼斯世界纪录所承认。由于2019冠状病毒病疫情，对该项目的兴趣增加，该系统在2020年3月下旬实现了大约1.22 exaflops的速度，到2020年4月12日达到了2.43 exaflops， 使其成为世界上第一个exaflop计算系统。其大规模计算网络的这种性能水平使研究人员能够对蛋白质折叠进行计算成本高昂的原子级模拟，其时间比以前长数千倍。 自2000年10月1日启动以来，潘德实验室（Pande Lab）已经产生了 225 篇科研论文，作为 Folding@home 的直接成果。该项目的模拟结果与实验非常吻合。 2004年3月8日，研究基因结构的Genome@home计划终止，并入Folding@home。
Folding@home (FAH or F@h) is a distributed computing project aimed to help scientists develop new therapeutics for a variety of diseases by the means of simulating protein dynamics. This includes the process of protein folding and the movements of proteins, and is reliant on simulations run on volunteers' personal computers. Folding@home is currently based at the University of Pennsylvania and led by Greg Bowman, a former student of Vijay Pande. The project utilizes graphics processing units (GPUs), and central processing units (CPUs) including ARM processors like those on the Raspberry Pi for distributed computing and scientific research. The project uses statistical simulation methodology that is a paradigm shift from traditional computing methods. As part of the client–server model network architecture, the volunteered machines each receive pieces of a simulation (work units), complete them, and return them to the project's database servers, where the units are compiled into an overall simulation.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗基因预测（英语：gene prediction）或称基因发现（gene finding），是生物信息学的一个重要分支，使用生物学实验或计算机等手段识别DNA序列上的具有生物学特征的片段。基因识别的对象主要是蛋白质编码基因，也包括其他具有一定生物学功能的因子，如RNA基因和调控因子。基因识别是基因组研究的基础。 在早期，基因识别的主要手段是基于活的细胞或生物的实验。通过对若干种不同基因的同源重组的速率的统计分析，我们能够获知它们在染色体上的顺序。若进行大量类似的分析，我们可以确定各个基因的大致位置。现在，由于人类已经获得了巨大数量的基因组信息，依靠较慢的实验分析已不能满足基因识别的需要，而基于计算机算法的基因识别得到了长足的发展，成为了基因识别的主要手段。 识别具有生物学功能的片段与判定该片段（或其对应的产品）的功能是两个不同的概念，后者通常需要通过基因敲除等的实验手段来决定。不过，生物信息学的前沿研究正在使得由基因序列预测基因功能变得愈发可能。
In computational biology, gene prediction or gene finding refers to the process of identifying the regions of genomic DNA that encode genes. This includes protein-coding genes as well as RNA genes, but may also include prediction of other functional elements such as regulatory regions. Gene finding is one of the first and most important steps in understanding the genome of a species once it has been sequenced. In its earliest days, "gene finding" was based on painstaking experimentation on living cells and organisms. Statistical analysis of the rates of homologous recombination of several different genes could determine their order on a certain chromosome, and information from many such experiments could be combined to create a genetic map specifying the rough location of known genes relative to each other. Today, with comprehensive genome sequence and powerful computational resources at the disposal of the research community, gene finding has been redefined as a largely computational problem.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗基因银行（英语：GenBank，另译基因库、基因数据库）是一个开放获取的序列数据库，对所有公开可利用的核苷酸序列与其翻译的蛋白质进行收集并注释。 此数据库是国际核酸序列数据库协作组织（INSDC）的一部分，由美国国家生物技术信息中心（NCBI）主管，NCBI为美国国立卫生研究院的下属机构。GenBank和它的合作者从全球各个实验室接收了超过百万种生物的数据。 成立三十年来，GenBank数据库成为了最重要的也是最有影响力的生物全领域数据库，其数据正被全球数以百万计的研究人员获取与引用。GenBank中的数据量正以每18个月翻一番的速度持续指数增长，在2013年2月的版本194中，数据库包含有1.62亿个序列，含有1500亿个核苷酸堿基。
The GenBank sequence database is an open access, annotated collection of publicly available nucleotide sequences and their protein translations. GenBank is part of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration (INSDC) and is produced and maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), a division of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). As of GenBank release 271.0 (April 2026), the database contained 53.90 trillion bases and 6.27 billion sequence records, including 261,460,182 GenBank entries containing 7,289,942,983,522 base pairs of sequence data. The database includes sequences from more than 581,000 formally described species. The database was established in 1982 by Walter Goad and the Los Alamos National Laboratory and has become a central resource for biological research. GenBank is built from direct submissions by individual laboratories as well as bulk submissions from large-scale sequencing projects.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗GTF（gene transfer format，字面意思是基因转移格式）是一种基因组学中用于标记基因在基因组中位置并同时提供一些基本注释信息的文件。GTF文件可与GFF文件第二版本完全互相兼容。Ensembl、GENCODE，以及UCSC基因组浏览器等项目都提供常见模式生物基因组的GTF注释文件。
The Gene transfer format (GTF) is a file format used to hold information about gene structure. It is a tab-delimited text format based on the general feature format (GFF), but contains some additional conventions specific to gene information. A significant feature of the GTF that can be validated: given a sequence and a GTF file, one can check that the format is correct. This significantly reduces problems with the interchange of data between groups. GTF is identical to GFF, version 2.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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