化学工程Catalysis催化（catalysis）或催化作用，是利用催化剂参与，改变化学反应速率而不影响化学平衡的作用。广泛发生于无机物反应、有机物反应、生物体内反应。 许多化学工业要利用催化作用来获得需要的反应速率。催化也是一种化工单元过程，催化剂本身在反应中不会被消耗，但催化剂会改变反应速率，一催化剂亦可能参与复数的催化反应。正催化剂可加速反应；负催化剂或抑制剂则会与反应物反应进而降低化学反应。可提高催化剂活性的物质称为促进剂；降低催化剂活性者则称为催化毒。 相较于未催化的反应，同温度的催化反应拥有较低的活化能。催化剂可以借由结合反应物达到极化的效果，如酸催化剂之于羰基化合物的合成；催化剂也可产生非自然的反应中间物，如以四氧化锇催化烯烃的双羟基化中产生的锇酸盐酯；催化剂亦可造成反应物的裂解，如制氢时产生的单原子氢。 很多物质都可以做催化剂，在无机物反应中，通常利用酸、碱、金属或金属化合物作为催化剂，在有机物反应中多用有性的蛋白质分子——酶作为催化剂，生物体内许多化学反应都依赖酶来进行的。 催化反应可以发生在均相催化和多相催化中，也可以发生在复相催化中：
Catalysis (, kə-TAL-iss-iss) is the increase in rate of a chemical reaction due to an added substance known as a catalyst ( KAT-əl-ist). Catalysts are not consumed by the reaction and remain unchanged after the reaction. If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst is recycled quickly, a very small amount of catalyst often suffices; mixing, surface area, and temperature are important factors in reaction rate. Catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form intermediates that subsequently give the final reaction product, in the process of regenerating the catalyst. The rate increase occurs because the catalyst allows the reaction to occur by an alternative mechanism which may be much faster than the noncatalyzed mechanism. However the noncatalyzed mechanism does remain possible, so that the total rate (catalyzed plus noncatalyzed) can only increase in the presence of the catalyst and never decrease.
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查看内容许可 ↗核反应堆（英语：nuclear reactor），又称原子炉（英语：atomic reactor），是一种启动、控制并维持核裂变或核聚变鏈式反应的装置。相对于核武爆炸瞬间所发生的失控链式反应，在反应堆之中，核变的速率可以得到精确的控制，其能量能够以较慢的速度向外释放，供人们利用。自20世纪50年代以来，裂变反应堆的相关技术早已成熟，但对于聚变反应堆的开发至今仍处于探索阶段。 核反应堆有许多用途，当前最重要的用途是产生热能，用以代替其他燃料加热水，产生蒸汽发电或驱动航空母舰等设施运转。一些反应堆被用来生产为医疗和工业用途的同位素，或用于生产武器级钚。一些反应堆运行仅用于研究。当前全部商业核反应堆都是基于核裂变的。今天，在世界各地的大约30个国家里有被用于发电的大约450个核反应堆。
A nuclear reactor is a device used to sustain a controlled fission nuclear chain reaction. They are used for commercial electricity, marine propulsion, weapons production, and research. Fissile nuclei (primarily uranium-235 or plutonium-239) absorb single neutrons and split, releasing energy and multiple neutrons, which can induce further fission. Reactors stabilize this, regulating neutron absorbers and moderators in the core. Fuel efficiency is exceptionally high; low-enriched uranium is 120,000 times more energy-dense than coal. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid coolant. In commercial reactors, this drives turbines and electrical generator shafts. Some reactors are used for district heating, and isotope production for medical and industrial use. After the discovery of fission in 1938, many countries launched military nuclear research programs. Early subcritical experiments probed neutronics. In 1942, the first artificial critical nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, was built by the Metallurgical Laboratory.
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查看内容许可 ↗辐射在物理学上指的是能量以波或是次原子粒子移动的型态，在真空或介质中传送。包含: 电磁波: 微波、可见光、X射线、γ射线(γ) 粒子辐射: α射线（α）、β射线′（β）、中子辐射 声辐射: 超声波、声波、地震波 引力波 辐射的能量会从辐射源往外向所有方向直线放射。一般依其能量的高低及电离物质的能力分类为电离辐射和非电离辐射。电离辐射所携带的能量大于10电子伏特(eV)，可以将原子或分子电离、打断化学键，非电离辐射则否。主要电离辐射来源为放射性物质，放射出α、β或γ射线，分别带有氦核、电子、正电子、光子。其他电离辐射来源有医学影像造影使用的X射线、渺子、介子、正电子、中子，以及宇宙射线与地球大气作用所产生的其他粒子。
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or a material medium. This includes: electromagnetic radiation consisting of photons, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation (γ) particle radiation consisting of particles of non-zero rest energy, such as alpha radiation (α), beta radiation (β), proton radiation and neutron radiation acoustic radiation, such as ultrasound, sound, and seismic waves, all dependent on a physical transmission medium gravitational radiation, in the form of gravitational waves, ripples in spacetime Radiation is often categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy of the radiated particles. Ionizing radiation carries more than 10 electron volts (eV), which is enough to ionize atoms and molecules and break chemical bonds. This is an important distinction due to the large difference in harmfulness to living organisms.
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查看内容许可 ↗阿瑞尼斯方程（英语：Arrhenius equation）是化学反应的速率常数与温度之间的关系式，适用于基元反应和非基元反应，甚至某些非均相反应。其不定积分形式为： k = A e − E a / R T {\displaystyle \ k=Ae^{{-E_{a}}/{RT}}} 或 ln k = − E a R T + ln A {\displaystyle \ \ln k=-{\frac {E_{a}}{RT}}+\ln A} 其中： k {\displaystyle \ k} 为反应的速率常数； A {\displaystyle \ A} 称为指前因子/阿伦尼乌斯常数，单位与 k…
In physical chemistry, the Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. In 1889 while working with Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig University, Svante Arrhenius proposed the equation on the basis of the work of Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, who had noted in 1884 that the Van 't Hoff equation for the temperature dependence of equilibrium constants suggests such a formula for the rates of both forward and reverse reactions. This equation has a vast and important application in determining the rate of chemical reactions and for calculation of energy of activation. Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula. Currently, it is best seen as an empirical relationship. It can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally induced processes and reactions. The Eyring equation, developed in 1935, also expresses the relationship between rate and energy.
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查看内容许可 ↗对流是指流体内部的分子运动，是热传与质传的主要模式之一。热对流（亦称为对流传热）是三种主要热传方式中的其中一种（另外两种分别是热传导与热辐射）。
Convection is the transfer of heat through the physical movement of fluids (liquids or gases), where warmer, less-dense material rises and cooler, denser material sinks. It is a single-phase or multiphase fluid flow that occurs spontaneously through the combined effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid. When the cause of the convection is unspecified, convection due to the effects of thermal expansion (change in density) and gravity/buoyancy can be assumed (see convection in heat transfer). Convective flow may be transient (such as when a multiphase mixture of oil and water separates) or steady state (see convection cell). The convection may be due to gravitational, electromagnetic or fictitious body forces. Heat transfer by natural convection plays a role in the structure of Earth's atmosphere, its oceans, and its mantle. Discrete convective cells in the atmosphere can be identified by clouds, with stronger convection resulting in thunderstorms. Natural convection also plays a role in stellar physics.
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查看内容许可 ↗换热器（亦称为热交换器或热交换设备）是用来使热量从热流体传递到冷流体，以满足规定的工艺要求的装置，是对流传热及热传导的一种工业应用。 在一般空调设备中都有换热器，即空调室内机和室外机的冷热排；换热器作放热用时称为“冷凝器”，作吸热用时称为“蒸发器”，冷媒在此二者的物理反应相反。所以家用空调机作为冷气机时，室内机的换热器称作蒸发器，室外机的则称为冷凝器；换做暖气机的角色时，则相反称之。
A heat exchanger is a system used to transfer heat between a source and a working fluid. Heat exchangers are used in both cooling and heating processes. The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural-gas processing, and sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the incoming air. Another example is the heat sink, which is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid coolant.
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查看内容许可 ↗在化学动力学中，反应速率常数，又称速率常数 k或 λ是化学反应速率的量化表示方式。 对于反应物A和反应物B反应成生成物C的化学反应，反应速率可表示成此式： d [ C ] d t = k ( T ) [ A ] m [ B ] n {\displaystyle {\frac {d[C]}{dt}}=k(T)[A]^{m}[B]^{n}} k(T)是反应速率常数，会随温度改变。假设反应发生在固定容积内，[A]和[B]代表两种反应物的莫耳浓度。 指数m和n称为反应级数，取决于反应机理，可由实验测定。将m和n相加，可得到反应的总级数。
In chemical kinetics, a reaction rate constant or reaction rate coefficient ( k {\displaystyle k} ) is a proportionality constant which quantifies the rate and direction of a chemical reaction by relating it with the concentration of reactants.
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查看内容许可 ↗化学反应速率方程是利用反应物浓度或分压计算化学反应的反应速率的方程。对于一个化学反应 m A + n B → C {\displaystyle mA+nB\rightarrow C} ，化学反应速率方程（与复杂反应速率方程相比较）的一般形式写作： r = − 1 m d [ A ] d t = k [ A ] x [ B ] y {\displaystyle r=-{\frac {1}{m}}{\frac {d[A]}{dt}}=k\ [A]^{x}[B]^{y}} 在这个方程中， [ X ] {\displaystyle [X]} 表示一种给定的反应物 X {\displaystyle X} 的活度，单位通常为摩尔每升（mol/L），但在实际计算中有时也用浓度代替（若该反应物为气体，表示分压，单位为帕斯卡 (Pa）。
In chemistry, the rate equation (also known as the rate law or empirical differential rate equation) is an empirical differential mathematical expression for the reaction rate of a given reaction in terms of concentrations of chemical species and constant parameters (normally rate coefficients and partial orders of reaction) only.
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查看内容许可 ↗对数平均温差（logarithmic mean temperature difference）简称为LMTD，是在传热流体系统（例如热交换器中）用来分析温度推动力的工具。对数平均温差是在双管换热器中冷端及热端温度差的对数平均。对数平均温差越大，表示传热量越大。在分析固定流速及流体热力学性质的热交换器时，就会出现对数平均温差。
In thermal engineering, the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers. The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold feeds at each end of the double pipe exchanger. For a given heat exchanger with constant area and heat transfer coefficient, the larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD arises straightforwardly from the analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid thermal properties.
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查看内容许可 ↗反馈（英语：feedback，台湾作回馈），又称回授，是控制论的基本概念，指将系统的输出返回到输入端并以某种方式改变输入，它们之间存在因果关系的回路，进而影响系统功能的过程。在这种情况下，我们可以说系统“反馈到它自身”。在讨论反馈系统时，因果关系的概念应当特别仔细对待： “对于反馈系统，很难作出简单的推理归因，因为当系统A反馈到系统B，系统B又反馈到系统A，形成了循环。这使得基于因果关系的分析特别困难，需要将系统作为一个整体来看待。” 反馈可分为负反馈和正反馈。前者使输出发挥与输入相反的作用，使系统输出与系统目标的误差减少，系统趋于稳定；后者使输出发挥与输入相似的作用，使系统偏差不断增加，使系统振荡，可以放大控制作用。对负反馈的研究是控制论的核心问题。
Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause and effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to feed back into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled carefully when applied to feedback systems: Simple causal reasoning about a feedback system is difficult because the first system influences the second and second system influences the first, leading to a circular argument. This makes reasoning based upon cause and effect tricky, and it is necessary to analyze the system as a whole. As provided by Webster, feedback in business is the transmission of evaluative or corrective information about an action, event, or process to the original or controlling source.
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查看内容许可 ↗菲克定律（英语：Fick's law）描述扩散作用，可以使用这条定律来求得扩散系数：D。定律由德国生理学家阿道夫·菲克于1855年推导出来。
Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion and were first posited by Adolf Fick in 1855 on the basis of largely experimental results. They can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, D {\displaystyle D} . Fick's first law can be used to derive his second law, which in turn is identical to the diffusion equation. Fick's first law: Movement of particles from high to low concentration (diffusive flux) is directly proportional to the particle's concentration gradient. Fick's second law: Prediction of change in concentration gradient with time due to diffusion. A diffusion process that obeys Fick's laws is called normal or Fickian diffusion; otherwise, it is called anomalous diffusion or non-Fickian diffusion.
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查看内容许可 ↗泵（英语：Pump）也译“帮浦”，又称“唧筒”，是一种移动流体（有时也包括泥浆之类。夹杂固体的混合物）的装置，可能透过加压，也可能透过其他的方式。泵运（Pumping）又称泵送、抽运，是指泵的运作，可将液体或分子从一个位置移动到另一个位置。泵一般是将电能转换为液压能或是气压能。 泵有许多不同的应用，例如水井泵、水族箱过滤、池塘过滤以及水曝气，汽车产业中用在水冷系统以及燃料喷射装置，能源产业用在油井泵、天然气井，或是暖通空调系统中运作冷却塔以及其他元件。在医疗卫生产业中，在药品的开发和制造时会用到泵，泵也可作为人工脏器，例如人工心脏以及人工阴茎， 有些泵里有二个或多个泵的机构，流体会依序经过这些机构，这类的泵称为多级泵（multi-stage pump）。 人类及动物的心脏可说是天然的泵，它把血液输送到身体各个部分。生物体内也有许多不同种类的泵（包括化学泵）。有时也会用仿生学来发展新型的泵。
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action, typically converted from electrical energy into hydraulic or pneumatic energy. Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers and other components of heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. In the medical industry, pumps are used for biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing medicine, and as artificial replacements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart and penile prosthesis. When a pump contains two or more pump mechanisms with fluid being directed to flow through them in series, it is called a multi-stage pump. Terms such as two-stage or double-stage may be used to specifically describe the number of stages. A pump that does not fit this description is simply a single-stage pump in contrast.
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查看内容许可 ↗在工程中，传递函数（英语：transfer function，也称系统函数、转移函数或网络函数，画出的曲线叫做传递曲线）是用来拟合或描述黑箱模型（系统）的输入与输出之间关系的数学表示。在二维图像的应用中，输入和输出的位图间的关系函数称作转移曲线、转换曲线（transfer curve）或特征曲线（characteristic curve）。 通常它是零初始条件和零平衡点下，以空间或时间频率为变量表示的线性时不变系统（LTI）的输入与输出之间的关系。然而一些资料来源中用“传递函数”直接表示某些物理量输入输出的特性，（例如二端口网络中的输出电压作为输入电压的一个函数）而不使用变换到S平面上的结果。
In engineering, a transfer function (also known as system function or network function) of a system, sub-system, or component is a mathematical function that models the system's output for each possible input. It is widely used in electronic engineering tools like circuit simulators and control systems and in chemical reaction engineering for the study and modeling of the residence time distribution and stability of a reactor. In simple cases, this function can be represented as a two-dimensional graph of an independent scalar input versus the dependent scalar output (known as a transfer curve or characteristic curve). Transfer functions for components are used to design and analyze systems assembled from components, particularly using the block diagram technique, in electronics and control theory. Dimensions and units of the transfer function model the output response of the device for a range of possible inputs.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗阀门（英语：Valve），又称凡而或凡尔，是控制流动中流体介质的流量、流向、压力、温度等的机械装置，阀门是管道系统中基本的部件。阀门管件在技术上与泵一样，常常作为一个单独的类别进行讨论。煤气开关、水龙头是常见最简单的阀门，其他比较常用的尚有蝶阀、球阀、闸阀、减压阀、截止阀、疏水阀、安全阀、针型阀、止回阀、过滤器、电磁阀、隔膜阀、排气阀、流量计、卫生级阀门等等。 阀门可用手动或者手轮、手柄或踏板操作，也可以通过控制来改变流体介质的压力、温度和流量变化。阀门可以对这些变化进行连续或重复的操作，比如在热水系统或蒸汽锅炉安装的安全阀。 在更复杂的控制系统根据外部输入（即调节流经管道不断变化的设置点）的需要采用自动控制阀门。自动控制阀门不需人工操作，根据其输入和设置，使阀门准确控制流体介质的各项要求。
A valve is a device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin valva, which describes the moving part of a door, in turn from volvere, which means to turn or roll. The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which swings down to obstruct fluid (gas or liquid) flow in one direction, but is pushed up by the flow itself when the flow is moving in the opposite direction. This is called a check valve, as it prevents or "checks" the flow in one direction. Modern control valves may regulate pressure or flow downstream and operate on sophisticated automation systems.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗普兰特数（英语：Prandtl number，缩写： P r {\displaystyle \mathrm {Pr} } ） ，是一个流体力学无因次的标量，以德国力学家路德维希·普朗特的名字命名，表示动黏滞系数和热扩散率的比例，也可以视为动量传输及热量传输速率的比例。
The Prandtl number (Pr) is a dimensionless number, named for the German fluid dynamicist Ludwig Prandtl. It is defined as the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗努塞尔特数是流体力学中的无因次参数，以德国物理学家威廉·努塞尔特（Wilhelm Nusselt）的名字命名，其意义为流体系统的特征长度与热边界层厚度之比，计算式为： N u = h L k fluid {\displaystyle \mathrm {Nu} ={\frac {hL}{k_{\text{fluid}}}}} 其中， h {\displaystyle h} 为热对流系数 L {\displaystyle L} 为特征长度 k fluid {\displaystyle k_{\text{fluid}}} 为流体的热导率
The Nusselt number is a nondimensionalization of the convective heat transfer coefficient. Like the heat transfer coefficient, the Nusselt number may be defined locally, at a single position on a surface, or as an average value that represents the heat flow from the entire surface. The Nusselt number is named in honor of Wilhelm Nusselt, who first identified this dimensionless group in 1915. Analytical results and empirical correlations allow the Nusselt number to be estimated in many situations. For forced convection, these expressions depend on the Reynolds number and the Prandtl number. For natural convection (or "free" convection) the predictions use the Grashof number or Rayleigh number along with the Prandtl number. The mass transfer analog of the Nusselt number is the Sherwood number.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗PID控制器（比例-积分-微分控制器），由比例单元（Proportional）、积分单元（Integral）和微分单元（Derivative）组成。可以透过调整这三个单元的增益 K p {\displaystyle K_{p}} ， K i {\displaystyle K_{i}} 和 K d {\displaystyle K_{d}} 来调定其特性。PID控制器主要适用于基本上线性，且动态特性不随时间变化的系统。 PID控制器是一个在工业控制应用中常见的回授回路部件。这个控制器把收集到的数据和一个参考值进行比较，然后把这个差别用于计算新的输入值，这个新的输入值的目的是可以让系统的数据达到或者保持在参考值。PID控制器可以根据历史数据和差别的出现率来调整输入值，使系统更加准确而稳定。 PID控制器的比例单元（P）、积分单元（I）和微分单元（D）分别对应目前误差、过去累计误差及未来误差。若是不知道受控系统的特性，一般认为PID控制器是最适用的控制器。借由调整PID控制器的三个参数，可以调整控制系统，设法满足设计需求。控制器的响应可以用控制器对误差的反应快慢、控制器过冲的程度及系统震荡的程度来表示。不过使用PID控制器不一定保证可达到系统的最佳控制，也不保证系统稳定性。 有些应用只需要PID控制器的部分单元，可以将不需要单元的参数设为零即可。因此PID控制器可以变成PI控制器、PD控制器、P控制器或I控制器。其中又以PI控制器比较常用，因为D控制器对回授噪声十分敏感，而若没有I控制器的话，系统不会回到参考值，会存在一个误差量。
A proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller, or three-term controller, is a feedback-based control loop mechanism commonly used to manage machines and processes that require continuous control and automatic adjustment. It is typically used in industrial control systems and various other applications where constant control through modulation is necessary without human intervention. The PID controller automatically compares the desired target value (setpoint or SP) with the actual value of the system (process variable or PV). The difference between these two values is called the error value, denoted as e ( t ) {\displaystyle e(t)} . It then applies corrective actions automatically to bring the PV to the same value as the SP using three methods: The proportional (P) component responds to the current error value by producing an output that is directly proportional to the magnitude of the error. This provides immediate correction based on how far the system is from the desired setpoint.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗边界层，又称附面层是一个流体力学名词，表示流体中紧接着管壁或其他固定表面的部分。边界层是由黏滞力产生的效应，和雷诺数Re有关。 一般提到的边界层是指速度的边界层。在边界层外，流体的速度接近定值，不随位置而变化。在边界层内，在固定表面上流速为0，距固定表面越远，速度会趋近一定值。
In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface. The fluid's interaction with the wall induces a no-slip boundary condition (zero velocity at the wall). The flow velocity then monotonically increases above the surface until it returns to the bulk flow velocity. The thin layer consisting of fluid whose velocity has not yet returned to the bulk flow velocity is called the velocity boundary layer. The air next to a human is heated, resulting in gravity-induced convective airflow, which results in both a velocity and thermal boundary layer. A breeze disrupts the boundary layer, and hair and clothing protect it, making the human feel cooler or warmer. On an aircraft wing, the velocity boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer (~ 1 km) near the ground.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗舍伍德数是流体力学中的无量纲数，也被称为质量传递努塞尔特数，指动量与扩散传质系数之比，计算式为： S h = h D L D f l u i d {\displaystyle \mathrm {Sh} ={\frac {h_{D}L}{D_{fluid}}}} 其中， h D {\displaystyle h_{D}} 为质量传递系数 L {\displaystyle L} 为特征长度 D f l u i d {\displaystyle D_{fluid}} 为扩散传质系数
The Sherwood number (Sh) (also called the mass transfer Nusselt number) is a dimensionless number used in mass-transfer operation. It represents the ratio of the total mass transfer rate (convection + diffusion) to the rate of diffusive mass transport, and is named in honor of Thomas Kilgore Sherwood.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗压缩机（英语：Compressor），是一种将气体压缩同时提升气体压力的机械，其应用广泛，常见的应用领域包括：压缩冷媒（如：冰箱、暖通空调，原理为热泵与制冷循环）、压缩空气（如：空气压缩机）、压缩气体（如：压缩氢气）、提供压缩气体作为工业驱动动力，如：硅化工、石油化工、天然气输送等。 有些压缩机是多段式的。多段式压缩机可以视为将压缩分为多段，并且用多个较小的压缩机接续完成压缩。以二段压缩机为例，其中第一段压缩先将气体压缩到一定压力，再由第二段将气体继续加压。一般来说，负责第二段的组件，在体积上会比负责第一段的压缩机要小，第二段的功用是配合已压缩的气体，再加压到所需的压力。每一段压缩机都会压缩气体，增加其压力，若没有额外冷却的话，也会增加其温度。
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. Many compressors can be staged, that is, the gas is compressed several times in steps or stages, to increase discharge pressure. Often, the second stage is physically smaller than the primary stage, to accommodate the already compressed gas without reducing its pressure. Each stage further compresses the gas and increases its pressure and also temperature (if inter cooling between stages is not used).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗过程控制是在工业系统中，为了控制过程的输出，利用统计或工程上的方法处理过程的结构、运作方式或其演算方式。处理过程控制的系统可称为过程控制系统。
Industrial process control (IPC) or simply process control is a system used in modern manufacturing which uses the principles of control theory and physical industrial control systems to monitor, control and optimize continuous industrial production processes using control algorithms. This ensures that the industrial machines run smoothly and safely in factories and efficiently use energy to transform raw materials into high-quality finished products with reliable consistency while reducing energy waste and economic costs, something which could not be achieved purely by human manual control. In IPC, control theory provides the theoretical framework to understand system dynamics, predict outcomes and design control strategies to ensure predetermined objectives, utilizing concepts like feedback loops, stability analysis and controller design. On the other hand, the physical apparatus of IPC, based on automation technologies, consists of several components.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗压降会缩写为ΔP，是指流体输送系统中，二点之间总压降的差。流体在管路中流动时，会因为管路阻力产生摩擦力，这就是造成压降的原因。摩擦力会将流体的能量转换为热能。而热能无法再转换为流体的能量，因此依照能量守恒定律，流体的压力会因此而下降。 流体阻力主要是受流体在管路中的速度以及流体黏度所影响。压降和管路中的摩擦剪力成正比。若管路的表面粗糙度高，或是有许多管道配件、接头、管道会聚、发散或是转弯等都会影响压降。高流速或是高黏度所造成的压降会较大。低流速的压降较小，甚至没有压降。有时流体中不只一个相，像是用气压输送来输送固体。此时也需要考虑输送固体产生的摩擦力。
Pressure drop (often abbreviated as "dP" or "ΔP") is defined as the difference in total pressure between two points of a fluid carrying network. A pressure drop occurs when frictional forces, caused by the resistance to flow, act on a fluid as it flows through a conduit (such as a channel, pipe, or tube). This friction converts some of the fluid's hydraulic energy to thermal energy (i.e., internal energy). Since the thermal energy cannot be converted back to hydraulic energy, the fluid experiences a drop in pressure, as is required by conservation of energy. The main determinants of resistance to fluid flow are fluid velocity through the pipe and fluid viscosity. Pressure drop increases proportionally to the frictional shear forces within the piping network. A piping network containing a high relative roughness rating as well as many pipe fittings and joints, tube convergence, divergence, turns, surface roughness, and other physical properties will affect the pressure drop.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗管流是水力学及流体力学的分支，是指液体在管道的流动，且液体不存在自由表面，也称为内流。存在自由表面的类似流动称为明渠流。管流和明渠流有许多类似之处，但两者的差异主要是在是否有自由表面。管流没有自由表面，因此不会直接受到大气压力的影响，但是会受到管子内水压的影响。 不是所有在封闭管道内的液体流都属于管流，例如雨水排水道就是在封闭管道内，但多半存在自由表面，因此仍属于明渠流。唯一的例外是雨水排水道全满时，不存在自由表面，此时即可视为管流。 管流里的能量常会表示为扬程，由伯努利定律所定义。为了在探讨管流的过程中可以将扬程概念化，管流的图中常会有水力坡线（hydraulic grade line，HGL）。管流会受到摩擦损失的影响，而摩擦损失是由达西–威斯巴哈方程式所定义。
In fluid mechanics, pipe flow is a type of fluid flow within a closed conduit, such as a pipe, duct or tube. It is also called as Internal flow. The other type of flow within a conduit is open channel flow. These two types of flow are similar in many ways, but differ in one important aspect. Pipe flow does not have a free surface which is found in open-channel flow. Pipe flow, being confined within closed conduit, does not exert direct atmospheric pressure, but does exert hydraulic pressure on the conduit. Not all flow within a closed conduit is considered pipe flow. Storm sewers are closed conduits but usually maintain a free surface and therefore are considered open-channel flow. The exception to this is when a storm sewer operates at full capacity, and then can become pipe flow. Energy in pipe flow is expressed as head and is defined by the Bernoulli equation. In order to conceptualize head along the course of flow within a pipe, diagrams often contain a hydraulic grade line (HGL).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在流体力学中，雷诺数（英语：Reynolds number）是流体的惯性力 ρ v 2 L {\displaystyle {\frac {\rho v^{2}}{L}}} 与黏性力 μ v L 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {\mu v}{L^{2}}}} 的比值，它是一个无量纲量。 雷诺数较小时，黏滞力对流场的影响大于惯性力，流场中流速的扰动会因黏滞力而衰减，流体流动稳定，为层流；反之，若雷诺数较大时，惯性力对流场的影响大于黏滞力，流体流动较不稳定，流速的微小变化容易发展、增强，形成紊乱、不规则的紊流流场。
In fluid dynamics, the Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that helps predict fluid flow patterns in different situations by measuring the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds numbers, flows tend to be dominated by laminar (sheet-like) flow, while at high Reynolds numbers, flows tend to be turbulent. The turbulence results from differences in the fluid's speed and direction, which may sometimes intersect or even move counter to the overall direction of the flow (eddy currents). These eddy currents begin to churn the flow, using up energy in the process, which for liquids increases the chances of cavitation. The Reynolds number has wide applications, ranging from liquid flow in a pipe to the passage of air over an aircraft wing. It is used to predict the transition from laminar to turbulent flow and is used in the scaling of similar but different-sized flow situations, such as between an aircraft model in a wind tunnel and the full-size version.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗仿真（英语：simulation）或译作模拟，泛指基于实验或训练为目的，将原本的真实或抽象的选定系统或流程，建立一个模型以表征其关键特性（key characteristics）或者行为、功能，予以系统化与公式化，以便进行可对关键特征做出仿真。模型表示系统自身，而仿真表示系统的时序行为。 电脑仿真常被用来研究仿真模型（simulation model）。仿真也被用于对自然系统或人造系统的科学建模以获取深入理解。仿真可以用来展示可选条件或动作过程的最终结果。仿真也会用在因为无法接近、也可能太过于危险或不可接受的后果、或者设计了但还未建造、或者根本就不存在等原因而不能在真实的系统中达成的。仿真的关键是获取相关选定的关键特性与行为的有效信息源，仿真时使用简化的近似或者假定，仿真结果的保真度（fidelity）与有效性。模型验证（verification）与有效性（validation）的过程、协议是学术学习、改进、研究、开发仿真技术的热点，特别是对计算机仿真。 仿真保真度（Simulation Fidelity）用于描述仿真精度，模拟真实对应物有多近似： 低保真：对系统的最小模拟，接受输入产生输出 中等保真：对刺激能自动响应，有限精度 高保真：接近不可辨识或者尽可能地接近真实系统
A simulation is an imitative representation of a process or system that could exist in the real world. In this broad sense, simulation can often be used interchangeably with model. Sometimes a clear distinction between the two terms is made, in which simulations require the use of models; the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected system or process, whereas the simulation represents the evolution of the model over time. Another way to distinguish between the terms is to define simulation as experimentation with the help of a model. This definition includes time-independent simulations. Often, computers are used to execute the simulation. Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance tuning or optimizing, safety engineering, testing, training, education, and video games. Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning, as in economics. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗仪器（Instrument）及仪表（Instrumentation）通常指一些用于科学研究或技术测量的，一般来说专用于一个目的的设备或装置。一般来说仪器是比较复杂的，由多个部件组成的。仪器一般不是非常大，往往可以直接拿在手中操作，比较大的仪器很少大于一间房间（更大的一般被称为装置）。大多数仪器被用来做一定的操作过程，但也有只用来做测量的仪器。一般在科学研究的实验室里、在医学研究和实践中仪器是必不可少的。
Instrumentation () is a collective term for measuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities. It is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related areas of metrology, automation, and control theory. The term has its origins in the art and science of scientific instrument-making. Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-reading thermometers, or as complex as multi-sensor components of industrial control systems. Instruments can be found in laboratories, refineries, factories and vehicles, as well as in everyday household use (e.g., smoke detectors and thermostats).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗标定（英语：Calibration），即为科学上之校准行为，意指“对某仪器、药物或须有精确单位之物品，其只知的体积、浓度......等刻度或单位之准确度，进行检测是否合乎标准，若否则修正。”
In measurement technology and metrology, calibration is the comparison of measurement values delivered by a device under test with those of a calibration standard of known accuracy. Such a standard could be another measurement device of known accuracy, a device generating the quantity to be measured such as a voltage, a sound tone, or a physical artifact, such as a meter ruler. The outcome of the comparison can result in one of the following: no significant error being noted on the device under test a significant error being noted but no adjustment made an adjustment made to correct the error to an acceptable level Strictly speaking, the term "calibration" means just the act of comparison and does not include any subsequent adjustment. The calibration standard is normally traceable to a national or international standard held by a metrology body.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗传感器（英语：Sensor）是一种检测环境中的事件或变化，并将此信息传送至其他电子设备（如中央处理器）的设备，通常由敏感器件和转换器件组成。传感器如被动式红外传感器和触摸传感器已广泛应用于日常物品，如触摸感应的电梯按钮和调光灯，以及温度、压力和流量测量等传统领域之外的无数应用中。随着微机电系统（MEMS）技术的进步，传感器可在微观尺度上批量制造，达到更快的测量速度和更高的灵敏度。一次性传感器的需求也在增长，用于短期监测或单次测量，无需重新校准且避免交叉污染。
A sensor is often defined as a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that is sensed and converted into electrical signal. In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor. Sensors like PIR sensor or touch sensor are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement, for example into MARG sensors. Analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗安全阀门（英语：safety valve），是在设备故障时防止事故的一种阀门。 安全阀的其中一个重要的类别是：紧急自动泄压阀（PRV），当压力或温度超过预设限值时，它将自动从锅炉、压力容器或其他系统中释放物质。 先导式安全阀是一种特殊类型的压力安全阀。防渗漏效果好，成本造价较低，一次性紧急使用，具备安全阀工程的装置是爆破片或爆破帽。
A safety valve is a valve that acts as a fail-safe. An example of safety valve is a pressure relief valve (PRV), which automatically releases a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system, when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits. Pilot-operated relief valves are a specialized type of pressure safety valve. A leak tight, lower cost, single emergency use option is a rupture disk. Safety valves were first developed for use on steam boilers during the Industrial Revolution. Early boilers operating without them were prone to explosion unless carefully operated. Vacuum safety valves (or combined pressure/vacuum safety valves) are used to prevent a tank from collapsing while it is being emptied, or when cold rinse water is used after hot CIP (clean-in-place) or SIP (sterilization-in-place) procedures. When sizing a vacuum safety valve, the calculation method is not defined in any norm, particularly in the hot CIP / cold water scenario, but some manufacturers have developed sizing simulations. The term safety valve is also used metaphorically.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗生命周期评估（英语：Life-cycle assessment，LCA；德语：Ökobilanzierung）系指分析评估一项产品从生产、使用到废弃或回收再利用等不同阶段所造成的环境冲击。例如:产品或技术的生命周期是指从摇篮到坟墓（英语：Cradle-to-grave）的整个时期，涵盖了原物料的取得及处理，产品制造、运输、使用和维护，到最收回或是终处置阶段。 生命周期评估会条列出所有产品相关产业（如：制造、使用及服务）中使用的能源和材料，并计算出对环境的排放量，进而评估可能对环境的影响。最终目的是为了记录并改善产品对环境的负面影响。 这里所谓的环境冲击，包括能源使用、资源的耗用、污染排放等。生命周期评估通过以下几点来避免对环境冲击考虑的短见： 收集能量和资源在系统内的投入以及排放造成的环境影响 通过测量的系统内的投入以及排放评价潜在影响 通过展示结果以便作出背景信息充足的决策 与火力发电相比，核电，风能和水力发电大大降低了环境污染。这三种发电方式在运营过程中对环境的直接影响与火力发电厂相比更少。 生命周期评估有许多国际通用的标准程序，其中包含国际标准化组织14000环境管环标准系列中的ISO 14040和ISO 14044。 然而，此评估方法在某些方面受到批评且有争议。例如：评估涵盖的范围、方法的一致性、份业者可能选择性的使用资料及参数...等。
Life cycle assessment (LCA), also known as life cycle analysis, is methodology for assessing the impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing (cradle), through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it (grave). An LCA study involves a thorough inventory of the energy and materials that are required across the supply chain and value chain of a product, process or service, and calculates the corresponding emissions to the environment. LCA thus assesses cumulative potential environmental impacts. The aim is to document and improve the overall environmental profile of the product by serving as a holistic baseline upon which carbon footprints can be accurately compared. The LCA method is based on ISO 14040 (2006) and ISO 14044 (2006) standards.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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