化学工程Green chemistry绿色化学是一门新兴的化学分支，以“原子经济性”为原则，研究如何在产生目的生成物的过程中充分利用原料及能源，减少有害物质的释放。绿色化学旨在将反应的效率达到最高，损耗降到最少，对大自然环境的伤害降到最低，从源头到最终产物的过程中减少废物的产生，降低对环境的污染或冲击等种种不利影响。
Green chemistry, similar to sustainable chemistry or circular chemistry, is an area of chemistry and chemical engineering focused on the design of products and processes that minimize or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. While environmental chemistry focuses on the effects of polluting chemicals on nature, green chemistry focuses on the environmental impact of chemistry, including lowering consumption of nonrenewable resources and technological approaches for preventing pollution. The overarching goals of green chemistry—namely, more resource-efficient and inherently safer design of molecules, materials, products, and processes—can be pursued in a wide range of contexts.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗危害与可操作性分析（HAZOP）是为了识别及评估在制程上可能产生的问题，结构化及系统化的检视流程及作业的方法，流程及作业可以是正在计划中的，也可以是既有的，所关注的问题是可能造成人员或设备的风险，或是影响正常作业的问题。 危害与可操作性分析一开始是用来分析化工厂的程序控制系统，但之后延伸到其他类型的系统，也包括复杂系统及软件系统。危害与可操作性分析是一种以引导词（guide-word）配合制程参数（温度、压力等）为基础的定性危害分析技术，一般会由多部门组成的团队（HAZOP团队）脑力激荡，透过多次的会议来进行。
A hazard and operability study (HAZOP) is a structured and systematic examination of a complex system, usually a process facility or machinery, in order to identify hazards to personnel, equipment or the environment, as well as operability problems that could affect operations efficiency. It is the foremost hazard identification tool in the domain of process safety. The intention of performing a HAZOP is to review the process or machinery through all phases of the product lifecycle to pick up design and engineering issues that may otherwise not have been found in other hazard identification (risk assessments) or design tools (FMEA’s, FTA’s, etc.) The technique is based on breaking the overall complex design of the process into a number of simpler sections called nodes which are then individually reviewed. It is carried out by a suitably experienced multi-disciplinary team (roles defined in section below) during a series of meetings. The HAZOP technique is qualitative and aims to stimulate the imagination of participants to identify potential hazards and operability problems.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗过程变量（process variable，简称PV）是指受控过程的状态变量（state variable），像是锅炉中的温度即为一例，锅炉目前的温度是过程变量，而希望锅炉达到的温度即为目标值 (set point，简称SP)。
In control theory, a process variable (PV; also process value or process parameter) is the current measured value of a particular part of a process which is being monitored or controlled. An example of this would be the temperature of a furnace. The current temperature is the process variable, while the desired temperature is known as the setpoint (SP).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗数字映射（Digital twin），或译作数字孪生、数字分身、数位双生，指在信息化平台内模拟物理实体、流程或者系统，类似实体系统在信息化平台中的双胞胎。借助于数字映射，可以在信息化平台上了解物理实体的状态，甚至可以对物理实体里面预定义的接口组件进行控制。 数字映射是物联网里面的概念，它指通过集成物理反馈数据，并辅以人工智能、机器学习和软件分析，在信息化平台内置立一个数字化模拟。这个模拟会根据反馈，随着物理实体的变化而自动做出相应的变化。理想状态下，数字映射可以根据多重的反馈源数据进行自我学习，从而几乎实时地在数字世界里呈现物理实体的真实状况。数字映射的反馈源主要依赖于各种传感器，如压力、角度、速度传感器等。数字映射的自我学习（或称机器学习）除了可以依赖于传感器的反馈信息，也可以是通过历史数据，或者是集成网络的数据学习。后者常指多个同批量的物理实体同时进行不同的操作，并将数据反馈到同一个信息化平台，数字映射根据海量的信息反馈，进行迅速的深度学习和精确模拟。
A digital twin is a computational model of an intended or actual real-world physical product, system, or process (a physical twin) that serves as a digital counterpart of it for purposes such as simulation, integration, testing, monitoring, and maintenance. By its strict definition, a digital twin is distinguished from an ordinary simulation in that it continuously uses real data from its physical counterpart to dynamically synchronize with the real system. A model that operates without data from its physical counterpart may also be described as a digital twin, but this is considered an overly broad and largely marketing-oriented interpretation of the concept. A digital twin is "a set of adaptive models that emulate the behaviour of a physical system in a virtual system getting real-time data to update itself along its life cycle.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗巴氏消毒法（英语：pasteurisation / pasteurization），又称“低温杀菌法”，是一种食物保存方法，由法国生物学家路易·巴斯德于1864年发明。原理是用低于100摄氏度（°C）的短暂加热，进行消毒，以杀死液体中的微生物，使食物在不变质的状况下延长保存时间。确切温度和时间依照液体的种类和它所含的微生物的性质而不同，一般介于70—90 °C（158—194 °F）之间。现在主要用于牛奶、葡萄酒、啤酒、果汁等发酵产品。
In food processing, pasteurization (-isation) is a process of food preservation in which packaged foods (e.g., milk and fruit juices) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life. Pasteurization either destroys or deactivates microorganisms and enzymes that contribute to food spoilage or the risk of disease, including vegetative bacteria, but most bacterial spores survive the process. Pasteurization is named after French microbiologist Louis Pasteur, whose research in the 1860s demonstrated that thermal processing would deactivate unwanted microorganisms in wine. Spoilage enzymes are also inactivated during pasteurization. Today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries for food preservation and food safety. By the year 1999, most liquid products were heat treated in a continuous system where heat was applied using a heat exchanger or the direct or indirect use of hot water and steam.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗亨利定律，是由威廉·亨利所发现的一个气体的定律。 表述为：在一定温度和平衡状态下，气体在液体中的溶解度和该气体的平衡分压成正比。
In physical chemistry, Henry's law is a gas law that states that the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is directly proportional at equilibrium to its partial pressure above the liquid. The proportionality factor is called Henry's law constant. It was formulated by the English chemist William Henry, who studied the topic in the early 19th century. An example where Henry's law is at play is the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression, possibly causing decompression sickness if the decompression happens too quickly. An everyday example is carbonated soft drinks, which contain dissolved carbon dioxide. Before opening, the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide, at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. After the bottle is opened, this gas escapes, thus decreasing the pressure above the liquid, resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide is liberated from the solution.
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查看内容许可 ↗混合工艺是在过程工程中的一种通过对非同质物理系统处理以实现更高同质化的单元操作。常见实例包括循环游泳池水以均衡水温以及搅拌面糊消除结块。混合工艺旨在促进单股或多股组分或相之间的热量传递、质量传递或两者兼有。现代工业加工几乎都涉及某种形式的混合，某些类型的化学反应器本质上也是混合设备。借助合适的设备，可实现固体、液体或气体向另一固体、液体或气体中的掺混。
In industrial process engineering, mixing is a unit operation that involves manipulation of a heterogeneous physical system with the intent to make it more homogeneous. Familiar examples include pumping of the water in a swimming pool to homogenize the water temperature, and the stirring of pancake batter to eliminate lumps (deagglomeration). Mixing is performed to allow transfer of heat or mass, or both, to occur between one or more streams, components or phases. Modern industrial processing almost always involves some form of mixing. Some classes of chemical reactors are also mixers. With the right equipment, it is possible to mix a solid, liquid or gas into another solid, liquid or gas. A biofuel fermenter may require the mixing of microbes, gases and liquid medium for optimal yield; organic nitration requires concentrated (liquid) nitric and sulfuric acids to be mixed with a hydrophobic organic phase; production of pharmaceutical tablets requires blending of solid powders. The opposite of mixing is segregation. A classical example of segregation is the brazil nut effect.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗挤型（Extrusion），亦称挤制或押出，是一种材料制作工具，用以制作固定截面形状的物体。材料经过推挤进入设计的模具，使所有被挤出的条状物具有相同的截面形状。 挤型具有两个主要的优点，第一是可以制作复杂的形状，第二是脆性材料也可以施作，因为其只会受到剪力及压力。抽制（Drawing）是一个类似的制程，差异在挤型是将材料推进模具，而抽制是将材料拉出模具，因此只能用于简单的形状。抽制常用于制作线材，而挤型则用于制作棒材、管材。 挤型可以是连续的（制作非常长的材料）或是半连续的（制作很多段材料）。挤型制程可加热或是在常温进行，称为热挤型或是冷挤型。 常用于挤型的材料如金属、高分子、陶瓷等，挤型后材料表面通常很光亮，且经过挤型之后的材料，有机会形成织构，也可能因为加工的原因使材料加工硬化。
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile by pushing material through a die of the desired cross-section. Its two main advantages over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections; and to work materials that are brittle, because the material encounters only compressive and shear stresses. It also creates excellent surface finish and gives considerable freedom of form in the design process. Drawing is a similar process, using the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. It limits the amount of change that can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes are also often drawn. Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). It can be done with hot or cold material. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, modelling clay, and foodstuffs.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗热力学方程（英语：thermodynamic equation）是以数学架构描述于实验室或生产制程中测得的热力学物理量。热力学是基于一些基础假设，即热力学定律。
Thermodynamics is expressed by a mathematical framework of thermodynamic equations which relate various thermodynamic quantities and physical properties measured in a laboratory or production process. Thermodynamics is based on a fundamental set of postulates, that became the laws of thermodynamics.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗双水相系统（英语：Aqueous two-phase system）对于传统有机相-水相的溶剂萃取来说是个全新的替代品。 当两种聚合物、一种聚合物与一种亲液盐或是两种盐（一种是离散盐且另一种是亲液盐）在适当的浓度或是在一个特定的温度下相混合在一起时就形成了双水相系统。这两相大多数情况下由水与非挥发性成分组成，因此避免了挥发性有机成分的使用。多年来，他们作为非至变性且温和的分离介质被应用于生物技术领域。最近，他们被用于金属离子分离、环境修复、冶金应用并作为一种反应介质。
Aqueous biphasic systems (ABS) or aqueous two-phase systems (ATPS) are clean alternatives for traditional organic-water solvent extraction systems. ABS are formed when either two polymers, one polymer and one kosmotropic salt, or two salts (one chaotropic salt and the other a kosmotropic salt) are mixed at appropriate concentrations or at a particular temperature. The two phases are mostly composed of water and non volatile components, thus eliminating volatile organic compounds. They have been used for many years in biotechnological applications as non-denaturing and benign separation media. Recently, it has been found that ATPS can be used for separations of metal ions like mercury and cobalt, carbon nanotubes, environmental remediation, metallurgical applications and as a reaction media.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗粒子的沉降系数 s 用来表征其在沉降，尤其是离心沉降过程中的行为 ；被定义为一个微粒的沉降速度与致其沉降的加速度的比率。 s = v t a {\displaystyle s={\frac {v_{t}}{a}}} 沉降速度 v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} （ m s − 1 {\displaystyle ms^{-1}} ）也称为终端速度 。这是一个恒定值，因为它受到重力或离心力（超速离心机提供的数万倍 g 的加速度 ）由介质（通常是水 ）被作用于该粒子的运动的粘性阻力所抵消，故作匀速直线运动。所施加的加速度 (ms−2)可以是重力加速度 g， 更常见的是离心加速度 ω 2 r {\displaystyle \omega ^{2}r} 。在后一种情况下， ω {\displaystyle \omega } 是转子的角速度 ，r 是粒子和转轴（ 半径 ）的距离。 粘性阻力由下式（斯托克斯定律）给出：6πηr0 v，其中η是介质的粘度，r0是颗粒的半径，v是粒子的速度。此规则仅适用于较大的球体。
In chemistry, the sedimentation coefficient (s) of a particle characterizes its sedimentation (tendency to settle out of suspension) during centrifugation. It is defined as the ratio of a particle's sedimentation velocity to the applied acceleration causing the sedimentation. s = v t a {\displaystyle s={\frac {v_{t}}{a}}} The sedimentation speed vt is also the terminal velocity. It is constant because the force applied to a particle by gravity or by a centrifuge (typically in multiples of tens of thousands of gravities in an ultracentrifuge) is balanced by the viscous resistance (or "drag") of the fluid (normally water) through which the particle is moving. The applied acceleration a can be either the gravitational acceleration g, or more commonly the centrifugal acceleration ω2r.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗均化是指将两种互不相溶的液体通过特定处理方式形成均匀混合物或乳浊液的过程。该过程通过将其中一种液体转化为极微小的颗粒状态，使其均匀分散于另一种液体中而实现。
Homogenization or homogenisation is any of several processes used to make a mixture of two mutually non-soluble liquids the same throughout. This is achieved by turning one of the liquids into a state consisting of extremely small particles distributed uniformly throughout the other liquid. A typical example is the homogenization of milk, wherein the milk fat globules are reduced in size and dispersed uniformly through the rest of the milk.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗气体的输运现象（英语：transport phenomena）表示一类气体由非平衡态转为平衡态的过程，主要有以下几类 ： 动量高的分子与动量低的分子之间混合时，所产生的与黏性有关的分子运动过程； 能量高的分子与能量低的分子之间混合时，所产生的与热传导有关的分子运动过程； 系统中的分子由于分子数密度的差异，产生的扩散现象。
In engineering, physics, and chemistry, the study of transport phenomena concerns the exchange of mass, energy, charge, momentum and angular momentum between observed and studied systems. While it draws from fields as diverse as continuum mechanics and thermodynamics, it places a heavy emphasis on the commonalities between the topics covered. Mass, momentum, and heat transport all share a very similar mathematical framework, and the parallels between them are exploited in the study of transport phenomena to draw deep mathematical connections that often provide very useful tools in the analysis of one field that are directly derived from the others. The fundamental analysis in all three subfields of mass, heat, and momentum transfer are often grounded in the simple principle that the total sum of the quantities being studied must be conserved by the system and its environment. Thus, the different phenomena that lead to transport are each considered individually with the knowledge that the sum of their contributions must equal zero.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗分离过程（英语：separation process）在化学与化学工程中被用于将一些物质的混合物转化为两个或多个不同的产物。被分离的产物常在化学性质或一些例如尺寸、晶体形状等的物理性质上有所改变。 除了一些少数特例外，几乎每种元素或化合物在自然情况下都以两种或更多成分的混合物形式存在。有时需要将它们分成单独化合物的形式。化学工程领域中的分离应用显得尤为重要。原油是一个好例子：原油是多种碳氢化合物的混合物并且其天然形式就很有价值。然而我们常需要纯化过的多种碳氢化物，例如天然气、汽油、柴油、喷气燃料、润滑油与沥青等。 分离过程基本上可被称为是传质过程。基于分离手段，分离过程可被分类为“力学的”或“化学的”，并可以根据相应的利弊来抉择。如果可能的话，“力学的”分离通常更受欢迎，因为此分类操作较“化学的”分离的耗费更低。
A separation process is a method that converts a mixture or a solution of chemical substances into two or more distinct product mixtures, a scientific process of separating two or more substances in order to obtain purity. At least one product mixture from the separation is enriched in one or more of the source mixture's constituents. In some cases, a separation may fully divide the mixture into pure constituents. Separations exploit differences in chemical properties or physical properties (such as size, shape, charge, mass, density, or chemical affinity) between the constituents of a mixture. Processes are often classified according to the particular properties they exploit to achieve separation. If no single difference can be used to accomplish the desired separation, multiple operations can often be combined to achieve the desired end. Different processes are also sometimes categorized by their separating agent, i.e. mass separating agents or energy separating agents.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗热力学（英语：thermodynamics） 是物理学的一个分支，研究热现象中能量的转换规律，特别是研究热、功和温度，以及它们与能量和熵的关系。热力学应用于许多科学和工程领域，特别是物理化学、生物化学、化学工程和机械工程，以及气象学等领域。 热力学发端于18世纪对气体和蒸汽机的研究。在19世纪，随着对热机效率和功与热量之间能量转换的研究。开始建立起热力学定律，标志着热力学理论的成熟。随着研究的深化，热力学研究被拓展到很多方面，比如相变化、化学反应、输运现象甚至是黑洞。 热力学的研究对象是由大量微观粒子组成的热力学系统。热力学系统温度、压强和内能等由宏观物理量描述，这些物理量的行为受到四个热力学定律的约束。热力学定律是从实验中总结出来的，但也可以通过统计力学从微观角度来解释。
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic physical quantities but may be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to various topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical engineering, and mechanical engineering, as well as other complex fields such as meteorology. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Sadi Carnot (1824).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗玻尔兹曼常数（英语：Boltzmann constant）是有关于温度及能量的一个物理常量，常用 k {\displaystyle k} 或 k B {\displaystyle k_{B}} 表示，以纪念奥地利物理学家路德维希·玻尔兹曼在统计力学领域做出的重大贡献。数值及单位为：（SI制，2014 CODATA 值） k = 1.38064852 ( 79 ) × 10 − 23 {\displaystyle k=1.38064852(79)\times 10^{-23}} J/K 括号内为误差值，原则上玻尔兹曼常数为导出的物理常量，其值由其他物理常量及绝对温度单位的定义所决定。
The Boltzmann constant (kB or k) is the proportionality factor that relates the average relative thermal energy of particles in a gas with the thermodynamic temperature of the gas. It occurs in the definitions of the kelvin (K) and the molar gas constant, in Planck's law of black-body radiation and Boltzmann's entropy formula, and is used in calculating thermal noise in resistors. The Boltzmann constant has dimensions of energy divided by temperature, the same as entropy and heat capacity. It is named after the Austrian scientist Ludwig Boltzmann. As part of the 2019 revision of the SI, the Boltzmann constant is one of the seven "defining constants" that have been defined so as to have exact finite decimal values in SI units. They are used in various combinations to define the seven SI base units. The Boltzmann constant is defined to be exactly 1.380649×10−23 joules per kelvin, with the effect of defining the SI unit kelvin.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗回燃（英语：Backdraft），或称复燃，又称爆燃，指火灾现场在缺氧燃烧时，因大量的新鲜空气冲入现场，而导致爆发式的剧烈燃烧现象。例如在燃烧一段时间的房间或飞机里开窗。与闪燃不同的是，闪燃为火灾由浓烟转向火海的关键界定特征，回燃则是后期的特征。
A backdraft (North American English), backdraught (British English) or smoke explosion is the abrupt burning of superheated gases in a fire caused when oxygen rapidly enters a hot, oxygen-depleted environment; for example, when a window or door to an enclosed space is opened or broken. Backdrafts are typically seen as a blast of smoke and/or flame out of an opening of a building. Backdrafts present a serious threat to firefighters. There is some debate concerning whether backdrafts should be considered a type of flashover.
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查看内容许可 ↗布朗马达是奈米或分子装置，以热趋动程序(化学应用)来控制及用来产生指向性的运动及做机械能或电能的功。这个小马达在粘性远大于惯性的环境下运用，而且热噪声使得它有如在龙卷风中行走般地难以走在一定的方向上：推动马达于一指定方向的力比环境所施的无规则的力要小的许多。因为这一类的马达强烈地依赖着热噪声，使得布朗马达只在奈米尺度下才可能实现。 在生物学里，许多细胞内的蛋白质分子马达实际上即是一种布朗马达。此一分子马达将存在三磷酸腺苷内的化学能转换至机械能。例如三磷酸腺苷酶马达，其作用即是水解ATP来产生指向性的能量。此一指向性的能量会使粒子(或离子或多肽)偏向；其结果最终会使得粒子扩散的静移动会强烈地偏向一个方向。 布朗马达的力学与活动是现今理论及实验生物物理学研究的客题。布朗马达有时会用佛克耳-普朗克方程或以蒙特·卡罗方法来模拟。许多的研究者现在都忙着想要了解分子尺寸的马达如何在不可忽略的热噪声中运作。这一马达的热力学被归在扰动定理的分支中。
Brownian motors are nanoscale or molecular machines that use chemical reactions to generate directed motion in space. The theory behind Brownian motors relies on the phenomenon of Brownian motion, random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting from their collision with the fast-moving molecules in the fluid. On the nanoscale (1–100 nm), viscosity dominates inertia, and the extremely high degree of thermal noise in the environment makes conventional directed motion all but impossible, because the forces impelling these motors in the desired direction are minuscule when compared to the random forces exerted by the environment. Brownian motors operate specifically to utilise this high level of random noise to achieve directed motion, and as such are only viable on the nanoscale.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗玻色气体（英语：Bose gas）是一个经典的理想气体的量子力学模型。其概念相似于费米气体。 结合萨特延德拉·玻色和爱因斯坦共同提出的理想的玻色气体，指的是在足够低的温度下〈接近0K〉一群玻色子会形成所谓的固化物。但这样的行为和经典的理想气体不同。而固化物的形成即所认知的玻色–爱因斯坦凝聚。
An ideal Bose gas is a quantum-mechanical phase of matter, analogous to a classical ideal gas. It is composed of bosons, which have an integer value of spin and abide by Bose–Einstein statistics. The statistical mechanics of bosons were developed by Satyendra Nath Bose for a photon gas and extended to massive particles by Albert Einstein, who realized that an ideal gas of bosons would form a condensate at a low enough temperature, unlike a classical ideal gas. This condensate is known as a Bose–Einstein condensate.
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查看内容许可 ↗绝热不变量，又称浸渐不变量或缓渐不变量，是指一个物理系统中，经过一个缓慢的变化而几乎保持不变的物理量，比如理想气体在绝热过程中的熵。这可以理解为，物理系统从一个状态向另一个状态过渡时，假如这个过程的持续时间趋向于无穷大，那么绝热不变量的变化就趋向于零。 浸渐不变量有一种错误的写法是寝渐不变量。出现这种错误的原因是繁体“浸”的一种字体是“寖”，和“寝”很像。 在热力学中，绝热过程是一个隔绝系统与外界热交换的过程，可快可慢。如果一个热力学过程发生得非常缓慢，以至于比体系达到平衡还要慢，那么这个过程就是可逆的，也被称为准静态过程。在可逆的绝热过程中，系统时刻保持平衡，而且系统的熵是定值。在20世纪上半叶，量子物理学家用“绝热过程”来描述可逆的绝热过程和其他缓慢变化的过程。这种量子力学的定义更接近于热力学中的准静态过程，与绝热过程没有直接关系。 在力学里面，绝热变化是哈密顿函数的缓慢变化，其中能量的相对变化速度要远远缓于周期运动的频率。相空间内，周期运动轨道所围成的体积就是绝热不变量。 在量子力学中，绝热变化的变化率远远低于本征态间的频率差。在这种情况下系统的能级不会变化，所以系统的量子数是绝热不变量。 在旧量子论中，系统的量子数等于经典的绝热不变量。这就确定了玻尔-索末菲量子化条件：量子数等于相空间内运动轨道所围成的体积。 在等离子体物理学中，绝热不变量有三个μ、J、Φ，每个都与不同类型的周期性运动相对应。
A property of a physical system, such as the entropy of a gas, that stays approximately constant when changes occur slowly is called an adiabatic invariant. By this it is meant that if a system is varied between two end points, as the time for the variation between the end points is increased to infinity, the variation of an adiabatic invariant between the two end points goes to zero. In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is a change that occurs without heat flow; it may be slow or fast. A reversible adiabatic process is an adiabatic process that occurs slowly compared to the time to reach equilibrium. In a reversible adiabatic process, the system is in equilibrium at all stages and the entropy is constant. In the 1st half of the 20th century the scientists that worked in quantum physics used the term "adiabatic" for reversible adiabatic processes and later for any gradually changing conditions which allow the system to adapt its configuration.
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查看内容许可 ↗生物热力学是解释生物体内热力学过程的科学，生物属于非平衡态的热力学系统，为了维持体内的有序，会将持续的太阳和食物里的能量转换为其他型式的能量。其中的热力学状态是由受控的生化反应持续调节来控制的，伴随着能量的释放和吸收。
Biological thermodynamics (Thermodynamics of biological systems) is a science that explains the nature and general laws of thermodynamic processes occurring in living organisms as nonequilibrium thermodynamic systems that convert the energy of the Sun and food into other types of energy. The nonequilibrium thermodynamic state of living organisms is ensured by the continuous alternation of cycles of controlled biochemical reactions, accompanied by the release and absorption of energy, which provides them with the properties of phenotypic adaptation and a number of others.
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查看内容许可 ↗波义耳温度为使得第二维里系数，即 B 2 ( T ) {\displaystyle B_{2}(T)} 等于零的温度。 在该温度下，作用在气体粒子上的引力和斥力相互平衡。
The Boyle temperature, named after Robert Boyle, is formally defined as the temperature for which the second virial coefficient, B 2 ( T ) {\displaystyle B_{2}(T)} , becomes zero.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗冷是热的相反词，用来形容一种低温的客观条件，是一种缺乏热能及温暖的状态。冷也用来表示对于类似状态的主观感受。 理论上最冷的温度是绝对零度，在开尔文温标下是0 K，若以摄氏温标表示则为−273.15 °C，兰金温标下是0 °R，而华氏温标下则为−459.67度。
Cold is the presence of low temperature, especially in the atmosphere. In common usage, cold is often a subjective perception. A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero, defined as 0.00 K on the Kelvin scale, an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. This corresponds to −273.15 °C on the Celsius scale, −459.67 °F on the Fahrenheit scale, and 0.00 °R on the Rankine scale. Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter, which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter, an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and more when it is hotter. If it was possible to cool a system to absolute zero, all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in the classical sense. The object could be described as having zero thermal energy. Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics, however, matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero, because of the uncertainty principle.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗压力 （pressure）是物体间相互挤压而垂直作用在物体表面的一种弹性力，其作用效果用压力除以受力面积表示，同称压力（pressure，常以 P {\displaystyle P} 为符号），在中国大陆又称压强（如物理学中通称“压强”、基础教育阶段只称“压强”，而将“压力”一词指称“compressive force”）。压力可用任意之力单位与面积单位进行测量，但因各学科与历史因素，其单位多样化，如：mmHg、mmH2O、torr、Pa、bar、psi、atm、Ba、g/cm2、kg/cm2、msw、fsw等等。但是，国际单位制以帕斯卡（每单位平方米的牛顿）为压力单位。 绝对压力为相对压力（又称计式压强）加上该地大气压力。日常生活中用的压力计，如车胎压、血压通常是测量相对压力。
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled gage pressure) is the pressure relative to the ambient pressure. Various units are used to express pressure. Some of these derive from a unit of force divided by a unit of area; the SI unit of pressure, the pascal (Pa), for example, is one newton per square metre (N/m2); similarly, the pound-force per square inch (psi, symbol lbf/in2) is the traditional unit of pressure in the imperial and US customary systems. Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure; the unit atmosphere (atm) is equal to this pressure, and the torr is defined as 1⁄760 of this. Manometric units such as the centimetre of water, millimetre of mercury, and inch of mercury are used to express pressures in terms of the height of column of a particular fluid in a manometer.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗制冷，通常指根据热力学第一、第二定律在机械能、热能或其它能源驱动下，从低于环境的物体中吸热，并转移至环境介质的热力过程。制冷已经广泛应用于空调、湿度控制、食品冷藏、饮料冷却、食品加工等诸多行业。。 现代人工作生活的各个方面，鲜有跟制冷空调毫无关系的，比如企业的运行、生产过程、仓储、运输均在温度控制的条件下进行。 在食品冷藏的应用中，将食品温度降低至零下18℃以下的制冷过程，通常被称为低温冷冻，而维持食品温度在零下18℃以上，则称作中温冷冻、冷藏。冷冻使对肉类和肉制品的处理过程，比不使用机械制冷时要卫生得多。 冰箱和空调都是采用制冷的原理。从热力学的角度，一般都是采用一种临界点高的气体，加压液化，然后再使它减压汽化吸热，反复进行这个过程，液化时在其他地方放热，汽化时对需要的范围吸热。 以前制冷剂一般使用氨，氨是最容易液化的气体，但氨泄露后有毒，所以后来改用无毒无嗅的氟氯烃，但在20世纪80年代，有科学家发现氟氯烃是导致地球大气同温层出现臭氧层空洞，可能影响地球生命的安全。使用氟氯烃替代品的无氯冰箱和空调开始得到研究和应用。 还有一种使用帕尔帖效应的，不需要制冷剂的制冷方式:在两种不同性质的导体或半导体的结合处通以电流，会在两端产生冷热两极。用这种原理制造的冰箱已经出现，但由于功率小，制造复杂，目前只能应用在小型冰箱中。
Refrigeration is the artificial cooling of a space, substance, or system to lower and/or maintain its temperature below the ambient temperature. Early refrigeration uses consumable coolants such as ice and dry ice (which are procured through separate means and need periodic replenishing), while modern refrigeration is a self-sustaining heat exchanger process by which thermal energy is transferred against the temperature gradient via the use of a heat-transfer working fluid (also known as refrigerant), which absorbs heat from a low-temperature medium and releases it to another higher-temperature medium, typically involving active phase change via a compressor and aided by a radiator system. Energy transfer in refrigeration is traditionally driven by physical means (whether ice melting or an electromechanical machine driving the heat exchanger), but it can also be driven by heat pump, magnetism, electricity, laser cooling, or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, and cool store air conditioning.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗热释电性（英语：Pyroelectricity）是某些晶体的特性，这些晶体自然极化，因此包含大电场。 热释电可以描述为某些材料在加热或冷却时产生临时电压的能力。温度的变化稍微改变了晶体结构中原子的位置，使得电极化的材料变化。这种极化变化会在晶体两端产生电压。如果温度保持恒定在其新值，热释电电压会由于电流泄漏而逐渐消失。泄漏可能是由于电子在晶体中移动、离子在空气中移动或电流通过连接在晶体上的电压表泄漏。
Pyroelectricity (from Greek: pyr (πυρ), "fire" and electricity) is a property of certain crystals which are naturally electrically polarized and as a result contain large electric fields. Pyroelectricity can be described as the ability of certain materials to generate a temporary voltage when they are heated or cooled. The change in temperature modifies the positions of the atoms slightly within the crystal structure, so that the polarization of the material changes. This polarization change gives rise to a voltage across the crystal. If the temperature stays constant at its new value, the pyroelectric voltage gradually disappears due to leakage current. The leakage can be due to electrons moving through the crystal, ions moving through the air, or current leaking through a voltmeter attached across the crystal.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗辐射冷却是指物件透过辐射散去热能的过程。 在气象学上，地球表面所吸收的太阳热能，到了夜晚会向天空发射出长波辐射，如果夜间天气晴朗、微风及干燥的情况下，地表的温度会快速冷却，产生突然降到低温的情形，就是所谓的“辐射冷却效应”。在日间时，地面吸收来自太阳热能的速度比散发的快，因此气温就会上升；到了夜晚，地面吸收来自太阳热能的速度比散发的慢，气温就会下降。另外，云层会阻隔辐射冷却，空气中的水分会阻挡地面的热能向外散发，因此部分天气晴朗以及干燥的地方，夜间温度下降的速度会特别快。
In the study of heat transfer, radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by thermal radiation. As Planck's law describes, every physical body spontaneously and continuously emits electromagnetic radiation. Radiative cooling has been applied in various contexts throughout human history, including ice making in India and Iran, heat shields for spacecraft, and in architecture. In 2014, a scientific breakthrough in the use of photonic metamaterials made daytime radiative cooling possible. It has since been proposed as a strategy to mitigate local and global warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions known as passive daytime radiative cooling.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗挤压循环（pressure-fed cycle）是液体火箭发动机动力循环的一种形式。推进剂受高压气体挤压，进入燃烧室。 挤压循环的优点就是避开了结构复杂的涡轮机，泵和输送管道，进而大幅降低发动机成本和复杂度。其缺点就是产生的压力不够高，因而发动机效率不高。 美国的太空船常采用这种循环，如阿波罗飞船的服务舱发动机，登月舱发动机及其姿态控制发动机。
The pressure-fed engine is a class of rocket engine designs. A separate gas supply, usually helium, pressurizes the propellant tanks to force fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber. To maintain adequate flow, the tank pressures must exceed the combustion chamber pressure. Pressure fed engines have simple plumbing and have no need for complex and occasionally unreliable turbopumps. A typical startup procedure begins with opening a valve, often a one-shot pyrotechnic device, to allow the pressurizing gas to flow through check valves into the propellant tanks. Then the propellant valves in the engine itself are opened. If the fuel and oxidizer are hypergolic, they burn on contact; non-hypergolic fuels require an igniter. Multiple burns can be conducted by merely opening and closing the propellant valves as needed. If the pressurization system also has activating valves, they can be operated electrically, or by gas pressure controlled by smaller electrically operated valves.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗一次能源（Primary energy，PE）又称初级能源、天然能源，是指能源部门为人类社会所需所找到或产生的能源，其在自然界中发现与取得且未经任何加工改变或转换过程，而可以直接使用的能量形式；其定义为：在将能源中包含的能量转换成热量或机械功之前，应使用“一次能源”来称呼那些直接由自然环境提取的能源，无论是否清洁、分级、与原物料分离、纯化或浓缩。（相对地，“二次能源”则是指称由一次能源加工转换产生的所有能源。）其能量多是由太阳辐射能直接转化而来的能源，如煤、石油、天然气、铀、阳光等。在一次能源中，根据其能否再生，又分为再生能源和非再生能源。 “一次能源供应总量”（TPES）等于生产量和进口量之和减去出口量和储存量的变化。 使用途径：一次能源大多转化为更便捷电能用于社会，其他则用于燃料等。
Primary energy (PE) is the energy found in nature that has not been subjected to any human engineered conversion process. It encompasses energy contained in raw fuels and other forms of energy, including waste, received as input to a system. Primary energy can be non-renewable or renewable. Total primary energy supply (TPES) is the sum of production and imports, plus or minus stock changes, minus exports and international bunker storage. The International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) prefers total energy supply (TES) to refer to this indicator. These expressions are often used to describe the total energy supply of a national territory. Secondary energy is a carrier of energy, such as electricity. These are produced by conversion from a primary energy source. Primary energy is used as a measure in energy statistics in the compilation of energy balances, as well as in the field of energetics. In energetics, a primary energy source (PES) refers to the energy forms required by the energy sector to generate the supply of energy carriers used by human society.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗复冰现象（Regelation）是指固体在受到压力时熔化，在压力消失后又重新凝固的现象。有些来源的描述方式是“将细的金属线绑在一块冰上，线上再拉着重物，细线对冰所施加的压力会使冰局部熔化，让细线可以进入熔化的冰中，冰在没有压力后会立刻再凝固，因此细线会卡在冰里。”此实验可以用零下10度（或更低温）的冰进行，在概念上合理，但在细绳穿过冰时的过程细节其实很复杂 此现象在细线材料的热传导良好（例如铜）时格外明显，原因是上方冰块熔化时所要的潜热需要由下方冰块提供。 此现象是由麦可·法拉第所发现。此现象只会发生在凝固时体积会膨胀的物质（例如冰）。因此若外在压力上升，物质的熔点会下降。压力每增加一大气压力，冰的熔点会下降0.0072 °C 。若压力到达500大气压，若要让冰在−4 °C时熔化，所需要的压力要到500大气压。“当冰受的压力增加时，熔点降低”是由詹姆斯·汤姆森提出，其兄弟威廉·汤姆森（开尔文勋爵）实验证明。
Regelation is the phenomenon of ice melting under pressure and refreezing when the pressure is reduced. This can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice, with a heavy weight attached to it. The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally, permitting the wire to pass through the entire block. The wire's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved, so the ice block will remain intact even after wire passes completely through. This experiment is possible for ice at −10 °C or cooler, and while essentially valid, the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex. The phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper, since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting. In short, the phenomenon in which ice converts to liquid due to applied pressure and then re-converts to ice once the pressure is removed is called regelation. Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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