化学工程Langmuir adsorption model朗缪尔吸附模型(英语:Langmuir adsorption model)也常被称为朗缪尔吸附等温式。这一模型假设在等温吸附过程中,吸附质的分子与理想气体的分子类似,吸附和解吸是一对可逆过程。也解释了吸附质的分压 p A {\displaystyle p_{A}} 与固体吸附剂上吸附质的体积之间的关系。其中的吸附剂被假设为一个理想的固体表面,具有一系列能够与吸附质结合的位点。这种结合被视作气相的吸附质分子 A g {\displaystyle A_{\text{g}}} 和空的位点S的相互作用。
The Langmuir adsorption model explains adsorption by assuming an adsorbate behaves as an ideal gas at isothermal conditions. According to the model, adsorption and desorption are reversible processes. This model even explains the effect of pressure; i.e., at these conditions the adsorbate's partial pressure p A {\displaystyle p_{A}} is related to its volume V adsorbed onto a solid adsorbent. The adsorbent, as indicated in the figure, is assumed to be an ideal solid surface composed of a series of distinct sites capable of binding the adsorbate. The adsorbate binding is treated as a chemical reaction between the adsorbate gaseous molecule A g {\displaystyle A_{\text{g}}} and an empty sorption site S.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Potential energy surface势能面,表示某一微观体系的势能和相关参数(通常为原子坐标)之间的函数关系,是势能函数的图像。势能面用一个或更多的坐标去表示,当用一个坐标去表示时,势能面通常被称为“势能曲线”。 势能面概念被用在物理以及化学领域, 尤其是它们的理论研究分支。 势能面可以被用来从理论层面理解由原子组成的物质的性质, 例如:搜寻分子的最低能量构形或者计算化学反应速率。 势能面类似于对地形的描述:对于一个有两个自由度的体系(例如:一个键长、一个键角),体系的势能可以类比为地形的高度,两个自由度可以类比为描述某位置的坐标。通过这样的描述,体系势能随坐标的变化可以很直观地被表示出来。 体系总势能与原子在空间的排布有关,是原子坐标等参数的函数,可以用一条曲线或一个多维表面表示。狭义的讲,将参数多于一个的势能图像叫做“(超)势能面”,而一维势能函数的图像称为“势能曲线”。势能面的多项式表面形式与它们在势能理论里的应用,有着自然的对应关系,而这种关系牵涉到对这些表面相互之间的调和函数。
A potential energy surface (PES) or energy landscape describes the energy of a system, especially a collection of atoms, in terms of certain parameters, normally the positions of the atoms. The surface might define the energy as a function of one or more coordinates; if there is only one coordinate, the surface is called a potential energy curve or energy profile. An example is the Morse/Long-range potential. It is helpful to use the analogy of a landscape: for a system with two degrees of freedom (e.g. two bond lengths), the value of the energy (analogy: the height of the land) is a function of two bond lengths (analogy: the coordinates of the position on the ground). The PES concept finds application in fields such as physics, chemistry and biochemistry, especially in the theoretical sub-branches of these subjects.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Steady state在系统理论中,如果定义系统或过程行为的变量(称为状态变量)不随时间变化,则系统或过程处于稳定状态。在连续时间内,这意味着对于系统的这些属性 p,相对于时间的偏导数为零并且保持不变:对于所有当前和未来 t ,∂ p ∂ t = 0。
In systems theory, a system or a process is in a steady state if the variables (called state variables) which define the behavior of the system or the process are unchanging in time. In continuous time, this means that for those properties p of the system, the partial derivative with respect to time is zero and remains so: ∂ p ∂ t = 0 for all present and future t .
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Uncertainty quantification不确定性量化(UQ)是对计算和现实世界应用中的不确定性进行定量表征和估计的科学。它试图确定如果系统的某些方面不完全已知的话某些结果的可能性有多大。一个例子是预测人体与另一辆车正面相撞时的加速度:即使速度是准确已知的,个别汽车制造过程中的微小差异、每个螺栓的拧紧程度等都会导致不同的结果,而这些结果只能在统计意义上进行预测。自然科学和工程学中的许多问题也充满了不确定性。计算机模拟的计算机实验是研究不确定性量化问题的最常见方法。
Uncertainty Quantification (UQ) is the science of quantitative characterization and estimation of uncertainties in both computational and real world applications. It tries to determine how likely certain outcomes are if some aspects of the system are not exactly known. An example would be to predict the acceleration of a human body in a head-on crash with another car: even if the speed was exactly known, small differences in the manufacturing of individual cars, how tightly every bolt has been tightened, etc., will lead to different results that can only be predicted in a statistical sense. Many problems in the natural sciences and engineering are also rife with sources of uncertainty. Computer experiments on computer simulations are the most common approach to study problems in uncertainty quantification.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Sensitivity analysis敏感性分析是研究如何将数学模型或系统(数值或其他)输出的不确定性划分并分配给其输入的不同不确定性来源。这涉及估计敏感度指数,以量化一个输入或一组输入对输出的影响。一个相关的实践是不确定性分析,它更加关注不确定性的量化和不确定性的传播;理想情况下,不确定性和敏感性分析应同时进行。数学模型(例如生物学、气候科学或经济学)可能非常复杂,因此,可能会错误地理解其输入和输出之间的关系。在这种情况下,模型可以被视为黑匣子,即输出是其输入的“不透明”函数。
Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system (numerical or otherwise) can be divided and allocated to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs. This involves estimating sensitivity indices that quantify the influence of an input or group of inputs on the output. A related practice is uncertainty analysis, which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty; ideally, uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem. A mathematical model (for example in biology, climate science, or economics) can be highly complex, and as a result, its relationships between inputs and outputs may be faultily understood. In such cases, the model can be viewed as a black box, i.e. the output is an "opaque" function of its inputs.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Finite element method有限元法 (FEM) 是对工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程进行数值求解的常用方法。感兴趣的典型问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量传输和电磁势等传统领域。计算机通常用于执行所需的计算。借助高速超级计算机,可以实现更好的解决方案,并且通常需要解决最大、最复杂的问题。 FEM 是一种用于求解二空间或三空间变量中的偏微分方程(即某些边值问题)的通用数值方法。也有关于使用有限元法解决高维问题的研究。为了解决问题,FEM 将大型系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。
Finite element method (FEM) is a popular method for numerically solving differential equations arising in engineering and mathematical modeling. Typical problem areas of interest include the traditional fields of structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and electromagnetic potential. Computers are usually used to perform the calculations required. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems. FEM is a general numerical method for solving partial differential equations in two- or three-space variables (i.e., some boundary value problems). There are also studies about using FEM to solve high-dimensional problems. To solve a problem, FEM subdivides a large system into smaller, simpler parts called finite elements.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Numerical method在数值分析中,数值方法是一种旨在解决数值问题的数学工具。用编程语言实现具有适当收敛性检查的数值方法称为数值算法。
In numerical analysis, a numerical method is a mathematical tool designed to solve numerical problems. The implementation of a numerical method with an appropriate convergence check in a programming language is called a numerical algorithm.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Boundary value problem在微分方程中,边值问题是一个微分方程和一组称之为边界条件的约束条件。边值问题的解通常是符合约束条件的微分方程的解。 物理学中经常遇到边值问题,例如波动方程等。许多重要的边值问题属于Sturm-Liouville问题。这类问题的分析会和微分算子的本征函数有关。 在实际应用中,边值问题应当是适定的(即:存在解,解唯一且解会随着初始值连续地变化)。许多偏微分方程领域的理论提出是为要证明科学及工程应用的许多边值问题都是适定问题。 最早研究的边值问题是狄利克雷问题,是要找出调和函数,也就是拉普拉斯方程的解,后来是用狄利克雷原理找到相关的解。
In the study of differential equations, a boundary-value problem is a differential equation subjected to constraints called boundary conditions. A solution to a boundary value problem is a solution to the differential equation which also satisfies the boundary conditions. Boundary value problems arise in several branches of physics as any physical differential equation will have them. Problems involving the wave equation, such as the determination of normal modes, are often stated as boundary value problems. A large class of important boundary value problems are the Sturm–Liouville problems. The analysis of these problems, in the linear case, involves the eigenfunctions of a differential operator. To be useful in applications, a boundary value problem should be well posed. This means that given the input to the problem there exists a unique solution, which depends continuously on the input.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Differential equation微分方程(英语:Differential equation,DE)是一种数学方程,用来描述某一类函数与其导数之间的关系。微分方程的解是一个满足方程的函数,通常微分方程的解并不唯一,经常要给定恰当的初始条件或边界条件才能确定。而在初等数学的代数方程里,其解是常数。 微分方程的应用十分广泛,可以解决许多与导数有关的问题。物理学中许多涉及变力的运动学、动力学问题,如空气阻力为速度函数的自由落体运动等问题,很多可以用微分方程求解。此外,微分方程在化学、工程学、经济学和数理生物学等领域都有应用。 数学领域对微分方程的研究着重在几个不同的面向,但大多数都是关心微分方程的解。只有少数简单的微分方程可以求得解析解。不过即使没有找到其解析解,仍然可以确认其解的部分性质。在无法求得解析解时,可以利用数值分析的方式,利用电脑来找到其数值解。 动力系统理论强调对于微分方程系统的量化分析,而许多数值方法可以计算微分方程的数值解,且有一定的准确度。
In mathematics, a differential equation is an equation that relates one or more unknown functions and their derivatives. In applications, the functions generally represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the differential equation defines a relationship between the two. Such relations are common in mathematical models and scientific laws; therefore, differential equations play a prominent role in many disciplines including engineering, physics, economics, and biology. The study of differential equations consists mainly of the study of their solutions (the set of functions that satisfy each equation), and of the properties of their solutions. Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, many properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without computing them exactly.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Kalman filter卡尔曼滤波(英语:Kalman filter)是一种高效率的递归滤波器(自回归滤波器),它能够从一系列的不完全及包含噪声的测量中,估计动态系统的状态。卡尔曼滤波会根据各测量量在不同时间下的值,考虑各时间下的联合分布,再产生对未知变量的估计,因此会比只以单一测量量为基础的估计方式要准。卡尔曼滤波得名自主要贡献者之一的鲁道夫·卡尔曼。 卡尔曼滤波在技术领域有许多的应用。常见的有飞机及太空船的导引、导航及控制。卡尔曼滤波也广为使用在时间序列的分析中,例如信号处理及计量经济学中。卡尔曼滤波也是机器人运动规划及控制的重要主题之一,有时也包括在轨迹优化。卡尔曼滤波也用在中轴神经系统运动控制的建模中。因为从给与运动命令到收到感觉神经的回授之间有时间差,使用卡尔曼滤波有助于建立符合实际的系统,估计运动系统的目前状态,并且更新命令。 卡尔曼滤波的算法是二步骤的程序。在估计步骤中,卡尔曼滤波会产生有关目前状态的估计,其中也包括不确定性。只要观察到下一个量测(其中一定含有某种程度的误差,包括随机噪声)。会通过加权平均来更新估计值,而确定性越高的量测加权比重也越高。算法是迭代的,可以在实时控制系统中执行,只需要目前的输入量测、以往的计算值以及其不确定性矩阵,不需要其他以往的信息。 使用卡尔曼滤波不用假设误差是正态分布,不过若所有的误差都是正态分布,卡尔曼滤波可以得到正确的条件概率估计。 也发展了一些扩展或是广义的卡尔曼滤波,例如运作在非线性系统的扩展卡尔曼滤波及无迹卡尔曼滤波(英语:unscented Kalman filter)。底层的模型类似隐马尔可夫模型,不过潜在变量的状态空间是连续的,而且所有潜在变量及可观测变量都是正态分布。
In statistics and control theory, Kalman filtering (also known as linear quadratic estimation) is an algorithm that uses a series of measurements observed over time, including statistical noise and other inaccuracies, to produce estimates of unknown variables that tend to be more accurate than those based on a single measurement, by estimating a joint probability distribution over the variables for each time-step. The filter is constructed as a mean squared error minimiser, but also relates to maximum likelihood statistics. The filter is named after Rudolf E. Kálmán. Kalman filtering has numerous technological applications. A common application is for guidance, navigation, and control of vehicles, particularly aircraft, spacecraft and ships positioned dynamically. Furthermore, Kalman filtering is much applied in time series analysis tasks such as signal processing and econometrics. Kalman filtering is also important for robotic motion planning and control, and can be used for trajectory optimization.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Thermal expansion热膨胀是物质尺寸随着温度升高而增大的趋势。随着温度的升高(通常不包括相变),物质的长度、面积和体积通常会增加,从而改变其尺寸和密度。物质通常随着温度降低而收缩,这称为热收缩。热膨胀的 SI 单位是开尔文倒数 (K−1)。温度是体内分子平均动能的量度。分子运动得越快,身体的温度就越高。具体来说,它是物质平均分子动能的单调函数。随着粒子能量的增加,它们开始移动得越来越快,削弱了它们之间的分子间力,从而使物质膨胀。
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to increase in size with increasing temperature. Matter generally increases in length, area, and volume, changing its size and density, in response to an increase in temperature (usually excluding phase transitions). Substances usually contract with decreasing temperature which is called thermal contraction. The SI unit of thermal expansion is the inverse kelvin (K−1). Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a body. The faster the molecules are moving, the higher that body's temperature is. Specifically, it is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance. As the energy in the particles increases, they start moving faster and faster, weakening the intermolecular forces between them and therefore expanding the substance.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Bulk modulus物质的体积模量( K {\displaystyle K} 或 B {\displaystyle B} 或 k {\displaystyle k} )是物质抵抗体积压缩的能力的量度。它被定义为无限小的压力增加与由此产生的相对体积减少的比率。其他模量描述材料对其他类型应力的响应(应变):剪切模量描述对剪切应力的响应,杨氏模量描述对法向(纵向拉伸)应力的响应。对于流体来说,只有体积模量才有意义。对于复杂的各向异性固体(例如木材或纸张),这三个模量不包含足够的信息来描述其行为,必须使用完整的广义胡克定律。固定温度下体积模量的倒数称为等温压缩率。
The bulk modulus ( K {\displaystyle K} or B {\displaystyle B} or k {\displaystyle k} ) of a substance is a measure of the resistance of a substance to bulk compression. It is defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume. Other moduli describe the material's response (strain) to other kinds of stress: the shear modulus describes the response to shear stress and Young's modulus describes the response to normal (lengthwise stretching) stress. For a fluid, only the bulk modulus is meaningful. For a complex anisotropic solid such as wood or paper, these three moduli do not contain enough information to describe its behaviour, and one must use the full generalized Hooke's law. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus at fixed temperature is called the isothermal compressibility.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Porosity孔隙率或空隙率是材料中空隙(即“空的”)空间的量度,并且是空隙体积占总体积的分数,介于 0 和 1 之间,或者作为介于 0% 和 100% 之间的百分比。严格来说,一些测试测量“可进入的空隙”,即从表面可进入的空隙空间的总量(参见闭孔泡沫)。有很多方法可以测试物质或零件的孔隙率,例如工业 CT 扫描。术语“孔隙度”用于多个领域,包括制药、陶瓷、冶金、材料、制造、岩石物理学、水文学、地球科学、土壤力学、岩石力学和工程学。
Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. "empty") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%. Strictly speaking, some tests measure the "accessible void", the total amount of void space accessible from the surface (cf. closed-cell foam). There are many ways to test porosity in a substance or part, such as industrial CT scanning. The term porosity is used in multiple fields including pharmaceutics, ceramics, metallurgy, materials, manufacturing, petrophysics, hydrology, earth sciences, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and engineering.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取;两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查,不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译,请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Darcy's law达西定律(英语:Darcy's law)是描述液体流过孔隙介质的本构方程。这个定律是法国工程师亨利·达西在1856年基于水流过沙的实验结果得到的。 此定律成为了地球科学的一个分支,水文地质学的基础;并且在生理学中也应用在对于血液与微血管的描述中。
Darcy's law is an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a porous medium and through a Hele-Shaw cell. The law was formulated by Henry Darcy based on results of experiments on the flow of water through beds of sand, forming the basis of hydrogeology, a branch of earth sciences. It is analogous to Ohm's law in electrostatics, linearly relating the volume flow rate of the fluid to the hydraulic head difference (which is often just proportional to the pressure difference) via the hydraulic conductivity. In fact, Darcy's law is a special case of the Stokes equation for the momentum flux, in turn deriving from the momentum Navier–Stokes equation. Darcy's law is analogous to Fourier's law in the field of heat conduction, Ohm's law in the field of electrical networks, and Fick's law in diffusion theory.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Electrical resistivity and conductivity电阻率(英语:resistivity),也称为体积电阻率或比电阻,是材料的特性,用于测量其电阻或抵抗电流的能力。 低电阻率表示材料容易通过电流。 电阻率通常用希腊字母ρ表示。电阻率的SI单位是欧姆·米(Ω· m)。例如,如果1 m3实心立方体材料在两个相对面上具有片状触点,这些触点之间的电阻为1 Ω,则材料的电阻率为1 Ω·m。 电导率(英语:conductivity),或比电导,是电阻率的倒数,代表材料传导电流的能力。 通常用希腊字母σ表示(西格玛),但特别在电气工程中,有时会用到字母κ(kappa )和γ(gamma)。电导率的SI单位是西门子每米(S/m)。 电阻率和电导率是材料的内含性质。电阻和电导是相对应的外延属性,它们表现特定物体对电流相反的反应。
In physics, electrical resistivity and electrical conductivity are two intrinsic properties of materials that measure a material's local, intrinsic ability to conduct electric current. They are reciprocals of each other, so each can be deduced from the other. They are usually numbers or scalar fields, but can be generalized to tensor quantities when the material is non-isotropic, or to complex quantities in the setting of time-varying currents. Electrical resistivity (also called volume resistivity or specific electrical resistance) is a fundamental specific property of a material that measures its electrical resistance or how strongly it resists electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω⋅m).
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Temperature coefficient温度系数(temperature coefficient)是指在温度变化1K时,特定物理量的相对变化。 以下的公式中,R为特定的物理量,T为量测物理量时的温度,T0为参考温度,ΔT为量测温度及参考温度的温度差,α为(线性)温度系数。则物理量可以用以下公式表示: R ( T ) = R ( T 0 ) ( 1 + α Δ T ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {R} (T)=\operatorname {R} (T_{0})(1+\alpha \Delta T)} 此处α的量纲为温度的倒数(1/K或K−1)。 以上式子的物理量和温度成线性关系,若物理量和温度的多项式或对数成正比,也可以在一定温度范围内计算温度系数,近似此范围内的物理量变化。若物理量是随温度指数增长或指数衰减(例如阿伦尼乌斯方程),只能在一个很小的温度范围内计算温度系数。 温度系数会随应用领域的不同而不同,例如核能、电子学或磁学均有其温度系数。物体的弹性模量也会随温度而变化,一般弹性模量会随温度升高而下降。
A temperature coefficient describes the relative change of a physical property that is associated with a given change in temperature. For a property R that changes when the temperature changes by dT, the temperature coefficient α is defined by the equation below: d R R = α d T {\displaystyle {\frac {dR}{R}}=\alpha \,dT} Here α has the dimension of an inverse temperature and can be expressed e.g. in 1/K or K−1.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Compressible flow可压缩流动(或气体动力学)是流体力学的一个分支,处理流体密度发生显着变化的流动。虽然所有流动都是可压缩的,但当马赫数(流动速度与声速之比)小于 0.3 时,流动通常被视为不可压缩(因为在这种情况下,由于速度引起的密度变化约为 5%)。可压缩流的研究与高速飞机、喷气发动机、火箭发动机、高速进入行星大气层、天然气管道、喷砂等商业应用以及许多其他领域相关。
Compressible flow (or gas dynamics) is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with flows having significant changes in fluid density. While all flows are compressible, flows are usually treated as being incompressible when the Mach number (the ratio of the speed of the flow to the speed of sound) is smaller than 0.3 (since the density change due to velocity is about 5% in that case). The study of compressible flow is relevant to high-speed aircraft, jet engines, rocket motors, high-speed entry into a planetary atmosphere, gas pipelines, commercial applications such as abrasive blasting, and many other fields.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Choked flow阻流(Choked flow)也称为阻塞流,是流体动力学中,在可压缩流中的效应,其中的流体速度受到限制(受到阻塞),和文丘里效应效应有关。当特定压力及温度的流体经过管路突缩位置(例如拉伐尔喷管的喉部或是管路的阀门)到压力较低的环境下,其流体速度会增加。依初始在上游的次音速条件,依照质量守恒定律,流体在经过截面积较小的管路突缩位置时,其速度要增加。同时因为文丘里效应,在管路突缩位置的静压(以及对应密度)都要降低。若在上游压力及温度固定时,即使下游的压力降低,其质量流率也不再增加,此时的情形即称为阻塞流。 针对均质流体,在绝热过程下会发生阻塞流的情形,需要出口平面的速度到达音速时才会出现,也就是马赫数为1。在阻塞流时,只有增加上游流体的密度(以及阻塞点的流体密度)才能增加质量流率。 气体阻塞流的的质量流率和下游的压力无关,只和上游的温度及压力(及密度)有关,因此常用在许多工程应用中。在阻塞流的条件下,可以用阀或是校正过的孔口板来产生想要质量流率。
Choked flow is a compressible flow effect. The parameter that becomes "choked" or "limited" is the fluid velocity. Choked flow is a fluid dynamic condition associated with the Venturi effect. When a flowing fluid at a given pressure and temperature passes through a constriction (such as the throat of a convergent-divergent nozzle or a valve in a pipe) into a lower pressure environment the fluid velocity increases. At initially subsonic upstream conditions, the conservation of energy principle requires the fluid velocity to increase as it flows through the smaller cross-sectional area of the constriction. At the same time, the Venturi effect causes the static pressure, and therefore the density, to decrease at the constriction. Choked flow is a limiting condition where the mass flow cannot increase with a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment for a fixed upstream pressure and temperature.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Rayleigh flow在流体动力学中,瑞利流(以英国物理学家瑞利勋爵命名)是指通过考虑传热效应的恒定面积管道的无摩擦、非绝热流体流动。尽管瑞利流模型当然也适用于不可压缩流,但通常会考虑可压缩性效应。对于该模型,管道面积保持恒定,并且管道内没有添加质量。因此,与范诺流不同,停滞温度是一个变量。热量的增加会导致停滞压力降低,这被称为瑞利效应,在燃烧系统的设计中至关重要。热量的增加将导致超音速和亚音速马赫数接近 1 马赫数,从而导致阻塞流。相反,排热会降低沿管道的亚音速马赫数并增加超音速马赫数。
In fluid dynamics, Rayleigh flow (after English physicist Lord Rayleigh) refers to frictionless, non-adiabatic fluid flow through a constant-area duct where the effect of heat transfer is considered. Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the Rayleigh flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant and no mass is added within the duct. Therefore, unlike Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature is a variable. The heat addition causes a decrease in stagnation pressure, which is known as the Rayleigh effect and is critical in the design of combustion systems. Heat addition will cause both supersonic and subsonic Mach numbers to approach Mach 1, resulting in choked flow. Conversely, heat rejection decreases a subsonic Mach number and increases a supersonic Mach number along the duct.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Laminar flow层流 () 是流体动力学中流体颗粒遵循层中平滑路径的特性,每层平滑地移动经过相邻层,几乎没有或没有混合。在低速下,流体往往会流动而不会发生横向混合,并且相邻层会平滑地相互滑过。不存在垂直于流动方向的横流,也不存在流体的涡流或漩涡。在层流中,流体颗粒的运动非常有序,靠近固体表面的颗粒沿平行于该表面的直线运动。层流是一种以高动量扩散和低动量对流为特征的流态。当流体流过封闭通道(例如管道)或两个平板之间时,根据流体的速度和粘度,可能会出现两种类型的流动:层流或湍流。
Laminar flow () is the property of fluid particles in fluid dynamics to follow smooth paths in layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no mixing. At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another smoothly. There are no cross-currents perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids. In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with particles close to a solid surface moving in straight lines parallel to that surface. Laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion and low momentum convection. When a fluid is flowing through a closed channel such as a pipe or between two flat plates, either of two types of flow may occur depending on the velocity and viscosity of the fluid: laminar flow or turbulent flow.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Material balance物料衡算在明确控制体上将输入、输出、生成、消耗和积累联系起来。元素守恒与组分反应需要区分,稳态假设表示积累项为零。
A material balance relates input, output, generation, consumption and accumulation within a defined control volume. Element conservation differs from species reactions, and steady state sets accumulation to zero.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Energy balance能量衡算依据热力学第一定律计算控制体能量收支,可能包括焓流、热量、功和动势能。焓参考态必须在各物流间保持一致。
An energy balance applies the first law to a control volume, potentially including enthalpy flow, heat, work and kinetic or potential energy. Enthalpy reference states must be consistent across streams.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Reaction extent反应进度用一个变量按化学计量系数描述反应造成的组分物质的量变化。多个独立反应需要分别设置进度,并保持系数符号约定一致。
Reaction extent represents species mole changes through stoichiometric coefficients and a scalar progress variable. Multiple independent reactions need separate extents and consistent coefficient signs.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Reactant conversion转化率表示进入反应系统的指定反应物有多少被消耗,需说明按单程还是总体计算。存在循环时,两种转化率可能显著不同。
Reactant conversion is the fraction of a specified reactant consumed relative to its feed basis. Single-pass and overall conversion differ, particularly in processes with recycle streams.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Product selectivity产品选择性描述目标产物相对于竞争产物或反应物消耗的比例,定义取决于文献约定。比较数据必须统一化学计量基准与瞬时或总体定义。
Product selectivity compares desired-product formation with competing products or reactant consumption. Conventions vary, so stoichiometric basis and instantaneous versus overall definitions must be aligned.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Chemical yield化学收率把实际获得的目标产物与理论或指定进料基准比较。分离收率、反应收率和分析收率具有不同含义,不能直接混用。
Chemical yield compares obtained product with a theoretical or specified feed basis. Isolated, reaction and analytical yields describe different quantities and should not be used interchangeably.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Fugacity逸度以具有压力量纲的量描述非理想物质的化学势,使相平衡可用各相逸度相等表示。它不必等于实际分压。
Fugacity is a pressure-like quantity representing nonideal chemical potential, allowing phase equilibrium to be expressed by equal fugacities. It need not equal the actual partial pressure.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Activity coefficient活度系数修正组成与化学活度之间的非理想关系,数值取决于标准态和组成尺度。混用摩尔分数与质量摩尔浓度标准态会导致错误。
An activity coefficient corrects the relationship between composition and chemical activity for nonideality. Its value depends on standard state and composition scale, which must not be mixed.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Compressibility factor压缩因子 Z 将实际气体的 pV 与 nRT 比较,理想气体时为一。它随温压和组成变化,临界区尤其不能简单取固定值。
The compressibility factor Z compares real-gas pV with nRT and equals one for an ideal gas. It varies with pressure, temperature and composition, especially near critical conditions.
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查看内容许可 ↗ 化学工程Vapor–liquid equilibrium汽液平衡描述共存气相和液相在温度、压力及各组分化学势上达到平衡的状态,是闪蒸与精馏计算的基础;不能仅由总组成判断相组成。
Vapor–liquid equilibrium requires thermal, mechanical and species chemical-potential equilibrium between coexisting phases. Flash and distillation calculations rely on it; overall composition alone does not specify phase compositions.
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