化学工程Process function热力学中的过程函数（英语：process function）是指描述系统状态变化过程的物理量，也称为过程量或路径函数。像功、热等都是过程函数，叙述热力学系统在各平衡状态之间的变换。 过程函数和从一个状态到另一个状态之间经历的路径有关。不同的路径会有不同的值，像是功、热量和弧长都是。过程函数和状态函数（State function）不同，后者是点函数。在特定状态下，特定的状态函数只会有一个值。 过程函数X的无穷小变化常会用δX表示，和状态函数Y的无穷小变化（写成dY）区分。dY量是全微分，而δX不是，是和路径有关的非全微分。过程函数的无穷小变化可以积分，但二个状态之间的积分会依其走的路径而定，而状态函数无穷小变化的积分就是这二点数值的差，和路径无关。 一般来说，过程函数X可能是完整约束，也可能是不完整约束。对于完整的过程函数，可以定义辅助状态函数（或积分因子）λ 使得Y = λX是状态函数。针对不完整的过程函数，就无法定义上述的函数。换句话说，完整的过程函数，可以定义λ使得dY = λδX是全微分。例如，热力学的功是完整过程函数，因为积分因子λ = 1/p（其中p是压力）可以得到体积状态函数的全微分dV = δW/p。康斯坦丁·卡拉西奥多里所述的热力学第二定律提到热是完整过程函数，因为积分因子λ = 1/T（其中T是温度）可以得到熵状态函数的全微分dS = δQ/T。
In thermodynamics, a quantity that is well defined so as to describe the path of a process through the equilibrium state space of a thermodynamic system is termed a process function, or, alternatively, a process quantity, or a path function. As an example, mechanical work and heat are process functions because they describe quantitatively the transition between equilibrium states of a thermodynamic system.
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查看内容许可 ↗在化学中，规则溶液（英语：Regular Solution） 为最接近理想溶液之真实溶液，满足准化学模式，溶液的混合焓不等于0(理想溶液混合焓=0)，溶液混合时总体积等于所有溶液成分之体积加总(同理想溶液)，即没有体积变化。 规则溶液的混合熵和理想溶液相同，两者皆满足下式: Δ S m = − n R ( X A ln X A + X B ln X B ) {\displaystyle \Delta S_{m}=-nR(X_{A}\ln X_{A}+X_{B}\ln X_{B})\,} 其中 R {\displaystyle R\,} 为气体常数, n {\displaystyle n\,} 为溶液中成分的总莫耳数。
In chemistry, a regular solution is a solution whose entropy of mixing is equal to that of an ideal solution with the same composition, but is non-ideal due to a nonzero enthalpy of mixing. Such a solution is formed by random mixing of components of similar molar volume and without strong specific interactions, and its behavior diverges from that of an ideal solution by showing phase separation at intermediate compositions and temperatures (a miscibility gap). Its entropy of mixing is equal to that of an ideal solution with the same composition, due to random mixing without strong specific interactions.
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查看内容许可 ↗压力体积图（pressure–volume diagram）也称为压力-容积循环（pressure–volume loop）或PV图，是用来叙述系统内体积和压强变化的图。常见于热力学、心血管生理学和呼吸生理学。 PV图一开始曾称为“指标图”（indicator diagrams），是在18世纪时发展，是研究蒸汽机效率所需的工具。
A pressure–volume diagram (or PV diagram, or volume–pressure loop) is used to describe corresponding changes in volume and pressure in a system. It is commonly used in thermodynamics, cardiovascular physiology, and respiratory physiology. PV diagrams, originally called indicator diagrams, were developed in the 18th century as tools for understanding the efficiency of steam engines.
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查看内容许可 ↗辐射平衡是离开物体的总热辐射等于进入它的总热辐射的条件。它是热力学平衡的几个要求之一，但它可以在没有热力学平衡的情况下发生。辐射平衡有多种类型，它本身是一种动态平衡。
Radiative equilibrium is the condition where the total thermal radiation leaving an object is equal to the total thermal radiation entering it. It is one of the several requirements for thermodynamic equilibrium, but it can occur in the absence of thermodynamic equilibrium. There are various types of radiative equilibrium, which is itself a kind of dynamic equilibrium.
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查看内容许可 ↗行星平衡温度（英语：Planetary equilibrium temperature）是一个理论上的行星表面温度。该理论简单地将行星当成黑体，并且行星的外在热源只有母恒星。在这个模型中并不考虑行星是否存在大气层，因此温室效应并不列入考虑。所以，依照这个模型计算的温度值是一个理论上的黑体温度，也就是行星的表面是理想化的。 其他研究人员以不同的名称描述这项概念，例如行星的“平衡黑体温度”，或“有效辐射发射温度”。相似的概念则包含了全球平均温度、全球辐射平衡、全球平均表面大气温度，前述概念都考虑到全球变暖的相关效应。
The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be if it were in radiative equilibrium, typically under the assumption that it radiates as a black body being heated only by its parent star. In this model, the presence or absence of an atmosphere (and therefore any greenhouse effect) is assumed to be irrelevant; the equilibrium temperature is calculated purely from a balance with incident stellar energy. Other authors use different names for this concept, such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet. The effective radiation emission temperature is a related concept, but focuses on the actual power radiated rather than on the power being received, and so may have a different value if the planet has an internal energy source or when the planet is not in radiative equilibrium. Planetary equilibrium temperature differs from the global mean temperature and surface air temperature, which are measured observationally by satellites or surface-based instruments, and may be warmer than the equilibrium temperature due to the greenhouse effect.
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查看内容许可 ↗量子热力学 是指关于热力学和量子力学这两门相互独立的物理理论间的关系的研究领域。热力学和量子力学都讨论有关光和物质的物理现象。 1905 年，阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦提出，热力学和电磁学之间应该保持一致，由此得出了光的量子化理论，给出了 E = h ν {\displaystyle E=h\nu } 的关系；该论文是量子理论的曙光。几十年过去，量子理论已经建立在另一套独立的规则之上。 而目前，量子热力学解决了热力学定律怎样从量子力学中导出的。相比于量子统计力学，量子热力学强调从平衡态脱离的动态过程，并且试图建立能使量子热力学适用于单个量子系统的理论。
Quantum thermodynamics is the study of the relations between two independent physical theories: thermodynamics and quantum mechanics. The two independent theories address the physical phenomena of light and matter. In 1905, Albert Einstein argued that the requirement of consistency between thermodynamics and electromagnetism leads to the conclusion that light is quantized, obtaining the relation E = h ν {\displaystyle E=h\nu } . This paper is the dawn of quantum theory. In a few decades quantum theory became established with an independent set of rules. Currently quantum thermodynamics addresses the emergence of thermodynamic laws from quantum mechanics. It differs from quantum statistical mechanics in the emphasis on dynamical processes out of equilibrium. In addition, there is a quest for the theory to be relevant for a single individual quantum system. The first university course titled "Quantum Thermodynamics" was offered at MIT in the spring of 1971 by George Hatsopoulos and Elias Gyftopoulos.
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查看内容许可 ↗三相点是指在热力学里，使一种物质三相（气相、液相、固相）达到热力学平衡共存时的一组温度和压强数值。比如，水的固-液-气三相点是0.01 °C（273.16 K）及611.73 Pa（约等于标准大气压101.325 kPa的千分之六）。汞的三相点是−38.8344 °C及0.2 MPa。 水的固-液-气三相点曾经被用于定义国际单位制基本单位中的热力学温标。在此定义下，水的固-液-气三相点温度（273.16 K，0.01 °C）不是测量值，而是真实值。但2019年国际单位制定义改变后，水的三相点成为测量值。其他几种物质的三相点也用于定义国际温标，如氢（13.8033 K）。 如果物质有多种固相和液相，测相图上相邻的三个相之间都会形成三相点。许多固体（如铁、冰）在不同温度和压力下会有不同的固相，因此有多个三相点。氦-4是唯一有两种液相（低温下液氦发生二级相变）的物质，所以氦-4虽然没有固-液-气三相点，但有液-液-气三相点：2.177 K，5.043 kPa。
In thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. It is that temperature and pressure at which the sublimation, fusion, and vapourisation curves meet. For example, the triple point of mercury occurs at a temperature of −38.8 °C (−37.8 °F) and a pressure of 0.165 mPa. In addition to the triple point for the solid, liquid, and gas phases, a triple point may involve more than one solid phase in substances with multiple polymorphs. Helium-4 is unusual in that it has no sublimation/deposition curve and therefore no triple points where its solid phase meets its gas phase. Instead, it has a vapor-liquid-superfluid point, a solid-liquid-superfluid point, a solid-solid-liquid point, and a solid-solid-superfluid point. None of these should be confused with the lambda point, which is not any kind of triple point. The first mention of the term "triple point" was on August 3, 1871, by James Thomson, brother of Lord Kelvin.
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查看内容许可 ↗零点能量（可简称零点能）在物理学中是量子力学所描述的物理系统会有的最低能量，此时系统所处的态称为基态；所有量子力学系统都有零点能量。这个辞汇起源于量子谐振子处在基态时，量子数为零的考量。 在量子场论中，这个辞汇和真空能量是等义词，指空无一物的空间仍有一定能量存在，对一些系统可以造成扰动，并且导致一些量子电动力学会出现的现象，例如兰姆位移与卡西米尔效应；它的效应可在纳米尺度的元件直接观测得到。 在宇宙论中，真空能量被视为宇宙常数的来源，与造就宇宙加速膨胀的暗能量相关。 零点能量是一系统可能持有的最低能量，因此此项能量无法自系统移除。尽管如此，零点能量的概念以及自真空汲取“免费能量”的可能性引起业余发明者的注目，许多“永动机”或称“免费能量装置”等提案都运用这项概念来解释，但由于从较低或相同的能量状态之中汲取能量违反了热力学第二定律并造成熵的降低，运用零点能量被科学界认为是不可能的。这项热潮以及相伴的趣味理论诠释促成了大众文化中“零点能量”概念的成长，常出现在科幻书刊、游戏、电影等处。
Zero-point energy (ZPE) is the lowest possible energy that a quantum mechanical system may have. Unlike in classical mechanics, quantum systems constantly fluctuate in their lowest energy state as described by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Therefore, even at absolute zero, atoms and molecules retain some vibrational motion. Apart from atoms and molecules, the empty space of a vacuum also has these properties. According to quantum field theory, the universe can be thought of not as isolated particles but continuous fluctuating fields: matter fields, whose quanta are fermions (in other words, leptons and quarks), and force fields, whose quanta are bosons (such as photons and gluons). All these fields have zero-point energy. These fluctuating zero-point fields lead to a kind of reintroduction of an aether in physics since some systems can detect the existence of this energy. However, this aether cannot be thought of as a physical medium if it is to be Lorentz invariant such that there is no contradiction with Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity.
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查看内容许可 ↗瓦特蒸汽机（Watt steam engine），又称博尔顿-瓦特蒸汽机（Boulton and Watt steam engine），是一种由詹姆斯·瓦特设计的早期蒸汽机，是工业革命的推动力之一。瓦特在1763年至1775年期间，在马修·博尔顿的支持下，零星地展开设计。 与早期其他人设计的蒸汽机（如纽可门蒸汽机）相比，瓦特设计的蒸汽机节省了更多的燃料。1776年，瓦特设计的蒸汽机开始商业化，此后瓦特持续改进自己设计的蒸汽机。 过了很多年后，新的设计才开始逐步取代瓦特设计的蒸汽机。
The Watt steam engine was an invention of James Watt that was a driving force of the Industrial Revolution. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was "the first truly efficient steam engine".
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查看内容许可 ↗安鲁效应（英语：Unruh effect），有时称为傅苓-戴维斯-安鲁效应（Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect），为一种预测：一名加速运动的观察者可以观测到惯性观察者无法看到的黑体辐射，即加速运动的观察者会发现自己处在一个温暖的宇宙背景中。用通俗讲法来说，一名等加速度观察者携带的温度计，排除掉其他可能的温度来源后，仍可测到一个不为零的温度。 安鲁效应首先由以下人士提出：史蒂芬·傅苓（1973年）、保罗·戴维斯（1975年）以及1976年在英属哥伦比亚大学的威廉·安鲁。 目前安鲁效应是否真的被观察到的情形仍不明朗，一些声称的观察结果具有争议性。另外，安鲁效应是否指出安鲁辐射的存在，也受到部分学者的质疑。
The Unruh effect (also known as the Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect) is a hypothetical, observer-dependent prediction of quantum field theory that an observer who is uniformly accelerating through empty space (Minkowski vacuum) will perceive a thermal bath. This means that even in the absence of any external heat sources, an accelerating observer will detect particles and experience a temperature. In contrast, an inertial observer in the same region of spacetime would observe no particles and no temperature. In other words, the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame. In layman's terms, an accelerating thermometer in empty space (like one being waved around), without any other contribution to its temperature, will record a non-zero temperature, just from its acceleration. Heuristically, for a uniformly accelerating observer, the ground state of an inertial observer is seen as a mixed state in thermodynamic equilibrium with a non-zero temperature bath. The Unruh effect was first described by Stephen Fulling in 1973, Paul Davies in 1975 and W. G. Unruh in 1976.
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查看内容许可 ↗活力（拉丁语：Vis viva，意为“生命力”）是动能的历史名词，出现于早期描述能量守恒原理的公式。活力也是已知第一个被用来描述“动能”这个概念的名词。
Vis viva (from the Latin for "living force") is a historical term used to describe a quantity similar to kinetic energy in an early formulation of the principle of conservation of energy.
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查看内容许可 ↗在化学和流体力学领域里，混合物中某种物质的体积分数（volume fraction），是该物质体积 V i {\displaystyle V_{i}} 与混合物“混合前”所有组分体积总和 ∑ j V j {\displaystyle \sum _{j}V_{j}} 的比 ϕ i {\displaystyle \phi _{i}} 。
In chemistry and fluid mechanics, the volume fraction φ i {\displaystyle \varphi _{i}} is defined as the volume of a constituent Vi divided by the volume of all constituents of the mixture V prior to mixing: φ i = V i ∑ j V j . {\displaystyle \varphi _{i}={\frac {V_{i}}{\sum _{j}V_{j}}}.} Being dimensionless, its unit is 1; it is expressed as a number, e.g., 0.18. It is the same concept as volume percent (vol%) except that the latter is expressed with a denominator of 100, e.g., 18%.
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查看内容许可 ↗热力学功是热力学系统与其环境相互作用并传递能量的一种过程。这种能量传递会在热力学系统外部产生可测量的宏观力，例如提升重物时所做的机械功，或是引起电磁场、引力场参量的变化。同样，环境也可对热力学系统做功。
Thermodynamic work is one of the principal kinds of process by which a thermodynamic system can interact with and transfer energy to its surroundings. This results in externally measurable macroscopic forces on the system's surroundings, which can cause mechanical work, for example to lift a weight, or cause changes in external electromagnetic quantities. Also, the surroundings can perform thermodynamic work on a thermodynamic system, which is measured by an opposite sign. For thermodynamic work, appropriately chosen externally measured quantities are exactly matched by values of or contributions to changes in macroscopic internal state variables of the system, which always occur in conjugate pairs, for example pressure and volume or magnetic flux density and magnetization. In the International System of Units (SI), work is measured in joules (symbol J). The rate at which work is performed is power, measured in joules per second, and denoted with the unit watt (W).
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查看内容许可 ↗废热或废弃热，指热机（利用热能转换成动能来运转）和电机（利用电能转换成动能来运转）运转时所产生，无法再利用的热。废热会造成河川及空气的热污染。
Waste heat is heat that is produced by a machine, or other process that uses energy, as a byproduct of doing work. All such processes give off some waste heat as a fundamental result of the laws of thermodynamics. Waste heat has lower utility (or in thermodynamics lexicon a lower exergy or higher entropy) than the original energy source. Sources of waste heat include all manner of human activities, natural systems, and all organisms, for example, incandescent light bulbs get hot, a building gets hot during peak hours, an internal combustion engine generates high-temperature exhaust gases, and electronic components get warm when in operation. Instead of being "wasted" by release into the ambient environment, sometimes waste heat (or cold) can be used by another process (such as using hot engine coolant to heat a vehicle), or a portion of heat that would otherwise be wasted can be reused in the same process if make-up heat is added to the system (as with heat recovery ventilation in a building).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗超冷原子是将原子保持在一个极低温的状态（接近绝对零度，0K），一般来说其典型温度在百纳开左右。在这样的低温状态下，原子的量子力学性质变得十分重要。要到达如此低的温度，则需要好几种技术的配合使用。首先将原子囚禁于磁光阱中，并用激光冷却预冷。一般也需要再利用蒸发制冷，以达到更低的温度。最近，麻省理工学院也有通过激光冷却直接达到量子简并物态的研究成果报导。 当原子被降到足够低的温度时，他们将会处于一种新的量子物态。对于玻色型原子气会产生玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚；对于费米型原子气，则形成简并费米气。由于原子间存在相互作用，实际上绝大多数原子在低温下的基态是形成固体（除了He3和He4，由于较大的零点能，常压下始终为液体），因此这类原子气实际上处于亚稳态。但是当原子气足够稀薄，碰撞概率足够小，这种亚稳态可以比较长时间的存在。无论是费米子还是玻色子，如果原子间相互为吸引作用，上述原子气所描述的状态将会失稳而塌缩。对于费米型气体，某种原子间的吸引作用可能形成类似超导当中的库伯（Cooper）对，而形成新的基态。 实验上，冷原子被用于研究玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚（BEC），超流，量子磁性，多体系统，BCS机制，BCS-BEC连续过渡等，对理解量子相变有重要意义。冷原子也被用于研究人工合成规范场，使得人们可以在实验室中模拟规范场，从而在凝聚态体系中辅助验证粒子物理的理论（而不需要巨大的加速器）。冷原子可以被精确的操控，可以用于研究量子信息学，冷原子系统是实现量子计算的众多方案中非常有前景的之一。
In condensed matter physics, ultracold atoms are atomic gases with a temperature near absolute zero. At such temperatures, the atoms quantum-mechanical properties become important, especially through what is known as superfluidity, a phenomenon also displayed by Superfluid Helium 4. To reach such low temperatures, a combination of several techniques typically has to be used. First, atoms are trapped and pre-cooled via laser cooling in a magneto-optical trap. To reach the lowest possible temperature, further cooling is performed using evaporative cooling in a magnetic or optical trap. Several Nobel prizes in physics are related to the development of the techniques to manipulate quantum properties of individual atoms (e.g. 1989, 1996, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2012, 2018). Experiments with ultracold atoms study a variety of phenomena, including quantum phase transitions, Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC), bosonic superfluidity, quantum magnetism, many-body spin dynamics, Efimov states , Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) superfluidity and the BEC–BCS crossover.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗跨临界循环（transcritical cycle）是工作流体在亚临界及超临界状态之间工作的热力学循环。 针对将热能转为机械能的热机，工作流体在压缩阶段维持液态，在膨胀阶段为气态。超超临界（ultrasupercritical）蒸气的朗肯循环是从化石燃料发电的火力发电厂中广泛使用的跨临界循环，以水为工作流体。其他发电应用中常用到的跨临界循环是有机朗肯循环，适用于低温的热源，例如地热能、余热回收装置或废弃物转制能源的热源。和亚临界循环比较起来，跨临界循环在定义上就可以利用较高的压力比，此一特性下，针对大多数的工作流体，也会有较高的热效率。超临界循环也是一种可能可以替代跨临界循环的方案。但跨临界循环可以达到较高的比功，因为压缩功的相对重要性有限。这证明了跨临界循环在以以最小支出（以压缩工作流体需耗费的能量计算）产出最大功率（以每一个循环的比功来计算）此目的上有很大的潜力。 在超临界循环（supercritical cycle）中，高压力及低压力都大于工作流体的临界压力。而在跨临界循环中，只有高压力大于临界压力，低压力会小于临界压力。在冷冻的跨临界循环应用中，越来越多会用二氧化碳CO2作为制冷剂
A transcritical cycle is a closed thermodynamic cycle where the working fluid goes through both subcritical and supercritical states. In particular, for power cycles the working fluid is kept in the liquid region during the compression phase and in vapour and/or supercritical conditions during the expansion phase. The ultrasupercritical steam Rankine cycle represents a widespread transcritical cycle in the electricity generation field from fossil fuels, where water is used as working fluid. Other typical applications of transcritical cycles to the purpose of power generation are represented by organic Rankine cycles, which are especially suitable to exploit low temperature heat sources, such as geothermal energy, heat recovery applications or waste to energy plants. With respect to subcritical cycles, the transcritical cycle exploits by definition higher pressure ratios, a feature that ultimately yields higher efficiencies for the majority of the working fluids.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗汪－山德勒混合律（英语：Wong–Sandler mixing rule）是一个用于计算气液平衡的热力学混合律，由汪上晓与史丹利·山德勒于1992年提出。
The Wong–Sandler mixing rule is a thermodynamic mixing rule used for vapor–liquid equilibrium and liquid-liquid equilibrium calculations.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗输运系数（ γ {\displaystyle \gamma } ）代表一个物理系统对偏离平衡的扰动的响应强度。因此，输运系数也描述了系统回到热力学平衡的速度。
A transport coefficient γ {\displaystyle \gamma } measures how rapidly a perturbed system returns to equilibrium.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗量热法或量热学（英语：Calorimetry）是测定因诸如化学反应、物理变化或相变之类的原因，一个物体在传热时状态变量发生的变化的一种方法或者一门科学。量热的过程会使用到热量计。苏格兰医生兼科学家约瑟夫·布拉克是第一个将热量和温度区分开来的人，人们认为他是量热学的创始人。
In chemistry and thermodynamics, calorimetry (from Latin calor 'heat' and Greek μέτρον (metron) 'measure') is the science or act of measuring changes in state variables of a body for the purpose of deriving the heat transfer associated with changes of its state due, for example, to chemical reactions, physical changes, or phase transitions under specified constraints. Calorimetry is performed with a calorimeter. Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be the founder of the science of calorimetry. Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxygen. Lavoisier noted in 1780 that heat production can be predicted from oxygen consumption this way, using multiple regression. The dynamic energy budget theory explains why this procedure is correct.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在热力学中，黑体（英语：Black body），是一个理想化的物体，它能够吸收外来的全部电磁辐射，并且不会有任何的反射与透射。随着温度上升，黑体所辐射出来的电磁波与光线则称做黑体辐射。这个名词在1862年由古斯塔夫·基尔霍夫所提出并引入热力学内。
A black body or blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. The radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium with its environment is called black-body radiation. The name "black body" is given because it absorbs all colors of light. In contrast, a white body is one with a "rough surface that reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions." A black body in thermal equilibrium (that is, at a constant temperature) emits electromagnetic black-body radiation. The radiation is emitted according to Planck's law, meaning that it has a spectrum that is determined by the temperature alone (see figure at right), not by the body's shape or composition. An ideal black body in thermal equilibrium has two main properties: It is an ideal emitter: at every frequency, it emits as much or more thermal radiative energy as any other body at the same temperature.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗沸腾是在液体表面和内部同时发生的剧烈汽化现象。是物质从液态转变为气态的两种相变方式之一，另一种是蒸发。
Boiling or ebullition is the rapid phase transition from liquid to gas or vapour; the reverse of boiling is condensation. Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, so that the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. Boiling and evaporation are the two main forms of liquid vapourization. There are two main types of boiling: nucleate boiling, where small bubbles of vapour form at discrete points; and critical heat flux boiling, where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical temperature and a film of vapour forms on the surface. Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F, but is lower with the decreased atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes. Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes and viruses that may be present.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗烧伤是指皮肤或其他组织因热力、电力、化学物质、摩擦力或辐射所造成的创伤。大部分的烧伤是因接触滚烫液体、固体或火焰的高温。尽管男性和女性的发病率相似，但其根本原因常常不同。在某些地区，女性的风险与暴露在烹饪的火焰或不安全的炉灶有关。男性的风险与工作环境有关。酗酒和吸烟也都是危险因子。自残或暴力行为也可能造成烧伤。 烧伤中，仅伤及皮肤表面就称为表皮烧伤或一级烧伤，伤口会变红、不会冒水泡，往往会持续三天之久。当伤口延伸至下层真皮层，就称为二级烧伤，会冒出水泡而且常会感到剧痛，需长达八周才能复原，可能会留疤。伤及全层皮肤的烧伤或称三级烧伤，伤口会深及全层皮肤，通常不太会痛，患部会僵硬且通常无法自愈。四级烧伤则更进一步伤及深部组织，如肌肉、肌腱、骨头等。这类烧伤大多会伤口发黑，并导致烧伤部位的部分组织流失。 烧伤通常可以预防，治疗方式则依烧伤严重程度而定。一级烧伤所需的止痛药剂量略多于一般剂量，较大的烧伤会需要在专门机构（例如烧伤中心）接受较长的治疗。冲冷水可能有助于缓解痛楚并减轻伤害，但冲得太久会导致人体失温症。二级烧伤者须在着衣情况下以肥皂及水清洁。处理水泡的方式还不确定，但可肯定的是，如果水泡不大，保持其完整，如果水泡很大，则需要将水泡刺破。三级烧伤须采手术治疗，例如皮肤移植。因为微血管内液外渗及组织肿胀，严重烧伤将需要大量的静脉输液。感染是烧伤最常见的并发症，如果效力过期，则可能需要施打破伤风疫苗。 2015年就有6700万件病例是因为火焰及高热所造成的，其中约有290万人入院治疗，17.6万人因此丧命。发展中国家最多因烧伤而丧命的病例集中在东南亚。大面积烧伤有致命的危险，1960年起，治疗方法已有显著的进步，尤其是针对孩童及青少年的治疗。在美国，被送到烧伤中心的伤患约有96%成功存活。烧伤的患者在男女都一样普遍，长期治疗的效果需视烧伤的大小及伤患的年纪而定。
A burn is an injury to skin, or other tissues, caused by heat, electricity, chemicals, friction, or ionizing radiation (such as sunburn, caused by ultraviolet radiation). Most burns are thermal burns caused by contact with heat from hot fluids (called scalding), solids, or fire. Burns occur mainly in the home or the workplace. In the home, risks are associated with domestic kitchens, including stoves, flames, and hot liquids. In the workplace, risks are associated with fire and chemical and electric burns. Alcoholism and smoking are other risk factors. Burns can also occur as a result of self-harm or violence between people (assault). Burns that affect only the superficial skin layers are known as superficial or first-degree burns. They appear red without blisters, and pain typically lasts around three days. When the injury extends into some of the underlying skin layer, it is a partial-thickness or second-degree burn. Blisters are frequently present and they are often very painful. Healing can require up to eight weeks and scarring may occur.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗黑体辐射指处于热力学平衡态的黑体发出的电磁辐射。黑体辐射的电磁波谱只取决于黑体的温度。另一方面，所谓黑体辐射是光和物质达到平衡所表现出的现象。物质达到平衡，所以可以用一个温度来描述物质的状态，而光和物质的交互作用很强，如此光和光之间也可以用一个温度来描述（光和光之间本身不会有交互作用，但光和物质的交互作用很强），而描述这关系的便是普朗克分布（Planck distribution）。黑体辐射能量按波长的分布仅与温度有关。 黑体不仅仅能全部吸收外来的电磁辐射，且散射电磁辐射的能力比同温度下的任何其它物体强。对于黑体的研究，使自然现象中的量子效应被发现。而黑体作为一个理想化的物体，在现实中是不存在的，因此现实中物体的辐射也与理论上的黑体辐射有所出入。但是，可以观察一些非常类似黑体的物质发出的辐射，例如一颗恒星或一个只有单一开口的空腔所发出的辐射。举个例来说，人们观测到宇宙背景辐射，对应到一个约3K的黑体辐射，这暗示宇宙早期光是和物质达到平衡的。而随着时间演化，温度慢慢降了下来，但方程式依然存在。（频率和温度的效应抵销）
Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted from a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment. A black body is an idealized opaque and non-reflective body. The radiation emitted is a continuous spectrum over all possible radiation wavelengths that depends only on the body's temperature. A perfectly-insulated enclosure which is in thermal equilibrium internally contains black-body radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall, provided the hole is small enough to have a negligible effect upon the equilibrium. The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as black-body radiation. Of particular importance, although planets and stars (including the Earth and Sun) are neither in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings nor perfect black bodies, black-body radiation is still a good first approximation for the energy they emit.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗建筑隔热（Building insulation）泛指建筑物中出于任何目而装置在建筑外围护结构（英文Envelope）的隔绝材料。建筑外围护结构则泛指窗、墙、地板、屋顶等，建筑物的外表面。虽然建筑物中的绝大部分隔绝材料（insulation）都是用于隔热，但隔热也适用于隔音、防火被覆或防震（例如，工业设备引起的振动）。
Building insulation is material used in a building (specifically the building envelope) to reduce the flow of thermal energy. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term also applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation, and impact insulation (e.g. for vibrations caused by industrial applications). Often an insulation material will be chosen for its ability to perform several of these functions at once. Since prehistoric times, humans have created thermal insulation with materials such as animal fur and plants. With the agricultural development, earth, stone, and cave shelters arose. In the 19th century, people started to produce insulated panels and other artificial materials. Now, insulation is divided into two main categories: bulk insulation and reflective insulation. Buildings typically use a combination. Insulation is an important economic and environmental investment for buildings. By installing insulation, buildings use less energy for heating and cooling and occupants experience less thermal variability.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗流体动力学（英语：Fluid dynamics）是流体力学的一门子学科。流体动力学研究的对象是运动中的流体（含液体和气体）的状态与规律。流体动力学底下的子学科包括有空气动力学和液体动力学。 解决一个典型的流体动力学问题，需要计算流体的多项特性，主要包括速度、压力、密度、温度。 流体动力学有很大的应用，比如在预测天气，计算飞机所受的力和力矩，输油管线中石油的流率等方面上。其中的一些原理甚至运用在运输工程，因交通运输本身可被视为一连续流体运动。
In physics, physical chemistry, and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids – liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of water and other liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space, understanding large scale geophysical flows involving oceans/atmosphere and modelling fission weapon detonation. Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure—which underlies these practical disciplines—that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves the calculation of various properties of the fluid, such as flow velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and time.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗容积热容是指物体在温度改变而没有相变之下的储热能力。与比热不同之处是它视乎物体的容积，而比热则视乎物体的质量。根据物体的比热，我们可以利用物体的密度得出容积热容。
The volumetric heat capacity of a material is the heat capacity of a sample of the substance divided by the volume of the sample. It is the amount of energy that must be added, in the form of heat, to one unit of volume of the material in order to cause an increase of one unit in its temperature. The SI unit of volumetric heat capacity is joule per kelvin per cubic meter, J⋅K−1⋅m−3. The volumetric heat capacity can also be expressed as the specific heat capacity (heat capacity per unit of mass, in J⋅K−1⋅kg−1) times the density of the substance (in kg/L, or g/mL). It is defined to serve as an intensive property. This quantity may be convenient for materials that are commonly measured by volume rather than mass, as is often the case in engineering and other technical disciplines. The volumetric heat capacity often varies with temperature, and is different for each state of matter.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗体温调节（英语：thermoregulation），指温度感受器接受体内和外在环境温度的刺激，通过体温调节中枢的活动，引起内分泌腺、骨骼肌、皮肤血管和汗腺等组织和器官活动的改变使人体体温维持恒定的过程。
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature as its own body temperature, thus avoiding the need for internal thermoregulation. The internal thermoregulation process is one aspect of homeostasis: a state of dynamic stability in an organism's internal conditions, maintained far from thermal equilibrium with its environment (the study of such processes in zoology has been called physiological ecology). If the body is unable to maintain a normal temperature and it increases significantly above normal, a condition known as hyperthermia occurs. Humans may experience lethal hyperthermia when the wet bulb temperature is sustained above 35 °C (95 °F) for six hours. Work in 2022 established by experiment that a wet-bulb temperature exceeding 30.55 °C caused uncompensable heat stress in young, healthy adult humans.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗产热是生物体产生热量的过程。所有恒温动物都会产热，某些植物也会产热，例如臭菘。 生物体有多种产热方式，在一般环境温度下，代谢和肌肉活动就能产热、在寒冷环境下则主要通过冷颤产热。
Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in the metabolism of organisms. It occurs in all warm-blooded animals, and also in a few species of thermogenic plants such as the Eastern skunk cabbage, the Voodoo lily (Sauromatum venosum), and the giant water lilies of the genus Victoria. The lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium americanum, disperses its seeds explosively through thermogenesis. Thermoregulation is an important component of a homeothermic animal's resting metabolic rate (RMR) and serves to defend body temperature within narrow limits at low or high ambient temperature. The energy used to sustain thermogenesis is obtained in cellular respiration when nutrients such as glucose or fatty acids are oxidized to generate molecules of ATP.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗热致变色，印刷界常以变色油墨、感温油墨称之。是物质在温度改变时发生颜色变化的性质。情绪戒指是这种现象的一个很好的例子，但热致变色也有更多的实际用途，例如：婴儿奶瓶（凉到能喝时改变为不同颜色）或水壶（水处于或接近沸点时变色）。在生活中，我们在一些特制的水杯、毛巾和发票上都能找到热致变色材料的应用。热致变色是众多变色效应的一种。
Thermochromism is the property of substances to change color due to a change in temperature. A mood ring is an example of this property used in a consumer product, although thermochromism also has more practical uses, such as for baby bottles that change to a different color when cool enough to drink, or kettles that change color when water is at or near boiling point. Thermochromism is one of several types of chromism.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在流体力学中，附加质量或虚拟质量是指系统额外增加的一部分惯性值，因为做加减速运动的物体会带动其周边的部分流体一起运动。在实际计算中，可以将它简化理解为一定体积的流体”粘附“在物体上，与物体同步运动，尽管事实上这部分流体的运动状态并非完全一致。 附加质量系数指附加质量与等效置换的流体质量（即流体密度乘以等效体积）之比，是一个无量纲量值。通常，附加质量是一个二阶张量，它将流体加速度矢量与作用在物体上的合力矢量关联在一起。
In fluid mechanics, added mass or virtual mass is the inertia added to a system because an accelerating or decelerating body must move (or deflect) some volume of surrounding fluid as it moves through it. Added mass is a common issue because the object and surrounding fluid cannot occupy the same physical space simultaneously. For simplicity this can be modeled as some volume of fluid moving with the object, though in reality "all" the fluid will be accelerated, to various degrees. The dimensionless added mass coefficient is the added mass divided by the displaced fluid mass – i.e. divided by the fluid density times the volume of the body. In general, the added mass is a second-order tensor, relating the fluid acceleration vector to the resulting force vector on the body.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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