化学工程Reverse osmosis逆渗透（英语：Reverse osmosis，简称RO）、反渗透，是一种净化水的办法。原理是利用渗透作用，将清水（低张溶液）和咸水（高张溶液）置于一管中，中间以一支允许水通过的半透膜分隔开来，可见到水从渗透压低（低张溶液）的地方流向渗透压高（高张溶液）的地方。然若在高张溶液处施予力，则可见水由渗透压高的地方流向渗透压低的地方。逆渗透是“正渗透”的反向，通常比正渗透的自然过程，耗费更多的能量。正渗透分离技术，逐渐成为新趋势。
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a semi-permeable membrane to separate water molecules from other substances. RO applies pressure to overcome osmotic pressure that favors even distributions. RO can remove dissolved or suspended chemical species as well as biological substances (principally bacteria), and is used in industrial processes and the production of potable water. In developing nations like Pakistan, industrial reverse osmosis plants are widely adopted across textile, pharmaceutical, and manufacturing sectors to overcome groundwater contamination and ensure compliant process water. RO retains the solute on the pressurized side of the membrane and the purified solvent passes to the other side. The relative sizes of the various molecules determines what passes through. "Selective" membranes reject large molecules, while accepting smaller molecules (such as solvent molecules, e.g., water).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗盐溶（salting in）是在溶液中加入少量中性无机盐类而使某种物质溶解度提高的过程或方法。此因无机盐会增加溶质分子表面的电荷，进而增强其与水分子的作用，使溶质在水溶液中的溶解度增大。 盐溶的例子如：当一溶液中同时含有蛋白质和离子化合物，提高离子化合物的浓度可提高该蛋白质的溶解度。造成这种现象的原因是当蛋白质盐溶液浓度提高时，因蛋白质的电荷会吸引与它相反电荷的离子，从而将蛋白质保护起来。然而，这个现象通常只发生在离子浓度低的情况下，离子浓度高时可观察到相反的现象，称其为盐析（salting out），亦即离子浓度越高，蛋白质溶解度即降低。
Salting in refers to the effect where increasing the ionic strength of a solution increases the solubility of a solute, such as a protein. This effect tends to be observed at lower ionic strengths. Protein solubility is a complex function of physicochemical nature of the protein, pH, temperature, and the concentration of the salt used. It also depends on whether the salt is kosmotropic, whereby the salt will stabilize water. The solubility of proteins usually increases slightly in the presence of salt, referred to as "salting in". However, at high concentrations of salt, the solubility of the proteins drop sharply and proteins can precipitate out, referred to as "salting out".
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗相对挥发度是比较化学液体混合物中各组分的蒸气压的量度。该量广泛用于设计大型工业蒸馏过程。实际上，它表明使用蒸馏将混合物中挥发性较高的成分与挥发性较低的成分分离的难易程度。按照惯例，相对波动率通常表示为 α {\displaystyle \alpha } 。相对挥发度用于设计所有类型的蒸馏过程以及涉及气相和液相在一系列平衡阶段中接触的其他分离或吸收过程。相对挥发度不用于涉及组分相互反应的分离或吸收过程（例如，在氢氧化钠水溶液中吸收气态二氧化碳）。
Relative volatility is a measure comparing the vapor pressures of the components in a liquid mixture of chemicals. This quantity is widely used in designing large industrial distillation processes. In effect, it indicates the ease or difficulty of using distillation to separate the more volatile components from the less volatile components in a mixture. By convention, relative volatility is usually denoted as α {\displaystyle \alpha } . Relative volatilities are used in the design of all types of distillation processes as well as other separation or absorption processes that involve the contacting of vapor and liquid phases in a series of equilibrium stages. Relative volatilities are not used in separation or absorption processes that involve components reacting with each other (for example, the absorption of gaseous carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蒸馏（英语：distillation、distilled，法语：distillation）是一种热力学的分离工艺，它利用混合液体或液-固体系中各组分沸点不同，使低沸点组分蒸发，再冷凝以分离整个组分的单元操作过程，是蒸发和冷凝两种单元操作的联合。蒸馏可以清除绝大部分杂质和杀死微生物。与其它的分离手段，如萃取、吸附等相比，它的优点在于不需使用系统组分以外的其它溶剂，从而保证不会引入新的杂质。 蒸馏有许多的应用，例如： 将制酒用材料发酵后，用蒸馏方式制作含有高乙醇含量的蒸馏酒，或其他有商业价值的发酵制品。 海水淡化传统上会用蒸馏来进行，利用液体在沸点时产生蒸气的原理，把海水中的水分转变为蒸气，把水分子和盐分分离，再使水分子凝固后就可制得淡水，是有效的作法。 在石油产业中，原油稳定（oil stabilization）是一种减少原油蒸气压的分馏方式，使原油的储存及运输可以安全，也减少原油中挥发到大气中的挥发性碳氢化合物。在炼油厂的中游操作中，分馏是将石油转换为燃料及原材料的主要单元操作类别之一 低温物理学中的蒸馏可以分离空气，产生的产物为工业应用的氧、氮及氩。 化学工业中，许多化学合成的产物会用蒸馏方式，和其他物质（可能是其他产物、杂质，或是未反应的反应物）分离。
Distillation, also classical distillation, is the process of separating the component substances of a liquid mixture of two or more chemically discrete substances by selective boiling of the mixture and the condensation of the vapors in a still. Distillation can operate over a wide range of pressures from 0.14 bar (e.g., ethylbenzene/styrene) to nearly 21 bar (e.g., propylene/propane) and is capable of separating feeds with high volumetric flowrates and various components that cover a range of relative volatilities from only 1.17 (o-xylene/m-xylene) to 81.2 (water/ethylene glycol). Distillation provides a convenient and time-tested solution to separate a diversity of chemicals in a continuous manner with high purity. However, distillation has an enormous environmental footprint, resulting in the consumption of approximately 25% of all industrial energy use.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗结晶，是指从过饱和溶液中凝结，或从气体凝华出具有一定的几何形状的固体（晶体）的过程。在自然环境下，气温的下降压力的作用，都会造成结晶。结晶的过程一般可分为两个阶段（包括成核和晶体生长期），时间也有所不同。 结晶亦是一种分离固态和液态物质的技术，其中溶质由溶液中转移至纯净的晶体里。不少自然过程都涉及结晶: 天然晶体的形成 （如矿物、宝石等） 雪花的形成 蜂蜜的结晶 如饱和溶液的气温下降速度慢，会形成一颗较大的晶体；如气温急剧下降，会形成粉状的小晶体。而小晶体可以放进饱和溶液充当大晶体的种子。 而重结晶或再结晶是重复结晶作用，用以准备纯度更高的结晶。
Crystallization is a process that leads to solids with a uniform pattern of atoms or molecules, i.e. a crystal. The uniform nature of a crystalline solid can be contrasted with amorphous solids in which atoms or molecules lack regular organization. Crystallization can occur by various routes including precipitation from solution, freezing of a liquid, or deposition from a gas. Attributes of the resulting crystal can depend largely on factors such as temperature, air pressure, cooling rate, or solute concentration. Crystallization occurs in two main phases. The first is nucleation, the appearance of a crystalline phase from either a supercooled liquid or a supersaturated solvent. The second step is known as crystal growth, which is the increase in the size of particles and leads to a crystal state.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗流体包裹的停留时间是流体包裹在控制体积（例如：化学反应器、湖泊、人体）内花费的总时间。一组宗地的停留时间根据该组中停留时间的频率分布（称为停留时间分布 (RTD)）或以其平均值（称为平均停留时间）来量化。停留时间在化学尤其是环境科学和药理学中起着重要作用。交货时间或等待时间分别在供应链管理和排队理论中发挥着核心作用，其中流动的材料通常是离散的而不是连续的。
The residence time of a fluid parcel is the total time that the parcel has spent inside a control volume (e.g.: a chemical reactor, a lake, a human body). The residence time of a set of parcels is quantified in terms of the frequency distribution of the residence time in the set, which is known as residence time distribution (RTD), or in terms of its average, known as mean residence time. Residence time plays an important role in chemistry and especially in environmental science and pharmacology. Under the name lead time or waiting time it plays a central role respectively in supply chain management and queueing theory, where the material that flows is usually discrete instead of continuous.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在工业中，管道是用于将流体（液体和气体）从一个位置输送到另一个位置的管道系统。管道设计的工程学科研究流体的有效输送。工业过程管道（以及随附的在线组件）可由木材、玻璃纤维、玻璃、钢、铝、塑料、铜和混凝土制成。称为管件、阀门和其他装置的在线组件通常感测和控制所传输流体的压力、流量和温度，并且通常包含在管道设计（或管道工程）领域中，尽管传感器和自动控制装置也可以被视为仪表和控制设计的一部分。管道系统记录在管道和仪表图 (P&ID) 中。如有必要，可采用管道清洗工艺对管道进行清洗。
Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids (liquids and gases) from one location to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the efficient transport of fluid. Industrial process piping (and accompanying in-line components) can be manufactured from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel, aluminum, plastic, copper, and concrete. The in-line components, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically sense and control the pressure, flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and usually are included in the field of piping design (or piping engineering), though the sensors and automatic controlling devices may alternatively be treated as part of instrumentation and control design. Piping systems are documented in piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can be cleaned by the tube cleaning process.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗黏度（英语：viscosity）即“流体黏稠的程度”，是度量流体黏滞性大小的物理量。当液体、拟液体或拟固体物质受到外部剪切力作用时，发生形变与流动，分子间会产生内摩擦或流动内阻力，表征此相应的抗形变、抗流动特性的物理量，就是黏度。黏度的科学定义是力乘以时间除以面积。因此，其国际单位制为牛顿秒每平方米，或帕斯卡秒。 黏度也称动力黏度、黏（滞）性系数、内摩擦系数。不同物质的黏度不同，例如在室温（25℃）及常压（1巴）下，空气的黏度为18.5 μPa·s，大约是在相同温度下的水黏度的1/50。在常温（20℃）常压下，汽油的黏度为0.65 mPa·s，水为1 mPa·s，血液（37℃）为4～15 mPa·s，橄榄油为102 mPa·s，蓖麻油为103 mPa·s，蜂蜜为104 mPa·s，焦油为106 mPa·s，沥青为108 mPa·s等等。 黏滞力是流体受到剪应力变形或拉伸应力时所产生的阻力。在日常生活方面，黏滞像是“黏稠度”或“流体内的摩擦力”。因此，水是“稀薄”的，具有较低的黏滞力，而蜂蜜是“浓稠”的，具有较高的黏滞力。简单地说，黏滞力越低（黏滞系数低）的流体，流动性越佳。 黏滞力是黏性液体内部的一种流动阻力，并可能被认为是流体自身的摩擦。黏滞力主要来自分子间相互的吸引力。例如，高黏度酸性熔岩产生的火山通常为高而陡峭的锥状火山，因为其熔岩浓稠，在其冷却之前无法流至远距离因而不断向上累加；而黏滞力低的镁铁质熔岩将建立一个大规模、浅倾的盾状火山。所有真正的流体（除超流体）有一定的抗压力，因此有黏性。没有阻力对抗剪剪应力的流体被称为理想流体或无黏流体。 零黏度（对剪切应力没有抵抗力）仅在超流体的极低温度下观察到；否则，热力学第二定律要求所有流体都具有正黏度。具有零黏度（非黏性）的流体称为理想流体或无黏性流体。
In continuum mechanics, viscosity is a property of a fluid that quantifies the resistance force acting on fluids when there is relative motion between fluid parcels. This resistance force is caused by the stress in fluid parcels, which ideally is directly proportional to the strain rate (the time derivative of strain) that arises when fluid parcels are in relative motion, and the relative speed between the boundary between adjacent fluid parcels is zero. In liquids, viscosity arises from cohesive molecular forces, while in gases it results from molecular collisions. Except for the case of superfluidity, there is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous effects to some degree. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of thickness; for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗再现性与可重复性和可重复性密切相关，是支撑科学方法的主要原则。研究结果的可重复性意味着，当研究被重复时，通过实验或观察性研究或数据集统计分析获得的结果应该再次获得高度的可靠性。复制有不同类型，但复制研究通常涉及使用相同方法的不同研究人员。只有在一次或多次成功复制之后，结果才能被视为科学知识。
Reproducibility, closely related to replicability and repeatability, is a major principle underpinning the scientific method. For the findings of a study to be reproducible means that results obtained by an experiment or an observational study or in a statistical analysis of a data set should be achieved again with a high degree of reliability when the study is replicated. There are different kinds of replication but typically replication studies involve different researchers using the same methodology. Only after one or several such successful replications should a result be recognized as scientific knowledge.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗COMOS 是西门子的工厂工程软件。该软件适用于过程工业中过程工厂的工程、操作和维护及其资产管理。
COMOS is a plant engineering software from Siemens. The applications for this software are in the process industries for the engineering, operation, and maintenance of process plants as well as their asset management.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在工程和科学中，不同物理量的量纲分析是对其物理量纲或数量量纲的分析，定义为识别所涉及的基本量（例如长度、质量、时间等）的幂的数学表达式，并在执行计算或比较时跟踪这些量纲。量纲分析和数量量纲的概念是由约瑟夫·傅里叶于1822年提出的。可通约的物理量具有相同的量纲和同类，因此即使它们以不同的测量单位表示，也可以直接相互比较；例如，米和英尺、克和磅、秒和年。
In engineering and science, dimensional analysis of different physical quantities is the analysis of their physical dimension or quantity dimension, defined as a mathematical expression identifying the powers of the base quantities involved (such as length, mass, time, etc.), and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed. The concepts of dimensional analysis and quantity dimension were introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822. Commensurable physical quantities have the same dimension and are of the same kind, so they can be directly compared to each other, even if they are expressed in differing units of measurement; e.g., metres and feet, grams and pounds, seconds and years.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗氢夹点分析（HPA）是一种源自热夹点分析概念的氢管理方法。 HPA是一种通过整合石化工业、炼油厂氢气分配网络和氢气纯化中的用氢活动或过程来减少氢气消耗和氢气产生的系统技术。
Hydrogen pinch analysis (HPA) is a hydrogen management method that originates from the concept of heat pinch analysis. HPA is a systematic technique for reducing hydrogen consumption and hydrogen generation through integration of hydrogen-using activities or processes in the petrochemical industry, petroleum refineries hydrogen distribution networks and hydrogen purification.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗孔板是一种用于测量流量、减压或限制流量的装置（在后两种情况下通常称为限流板）。
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, reducing pressure or restricting flow (in the latter two cases it is often called a restriction plate).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗反应结合碳化硅，也称为硅化碳化硅或SiSiC，是一种碳化硅，是通过多孔碳或石墨与熔融硅之间的化学反应制成的。由于残留有硅的痕迹，反应结合碳化硅通常被称为硅化碳化硅，或其缩写SiSiC。如果通过烧结碳化硅粉末生产块状碳化硅，它通常含有微量的称为烧结助剂的化学物质，添加这些化学物质是为了通过降低烧结温度来支持烧结过程。这种类型的碳化硅通常称为烧结碳化硅，或缩写为SSiC。碳化硅粉末是从如碳化硅一文中所述生产的碳化硅中获得的。
Reaction bonded silicon carbide, also known as siliconized silicon carbide or SiSiC, is a type of silicon carbide that is manufactured by a chemical reaction between porous carbon or graphite with molten silicon. Due to the left over traces of silicon, reaction bonded silicon carbide is often referred to as siliconized silicon carbide, or its abbreviation SiSiC. If bulk silicon carbide is produced by sintering of silicon carbide powder, it usually contains traces of chemicals called sintering aids, which are added to support the sintering process by allowing lower sintering temperatures. This type of silicon carbide is often referred to as sintered silicon carbide, or abbreviated to SSiC. The silicon carbide powder is gained from silicon carbide produced as described in the article silicon carbide.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗热工程，有时称为应用热力学和传热 (ATHT)，是机械工程的一个专门分支学科，专注于热系统内部或之间热能的存储、传递和转换。热工程师必须应用热力学、流体力学和传热定律来设计通常涉及热机或热交换器的有用系统。热工程是从发电厂、航空航天到计算机设计等许多现代工业中的一门重要学科。
Thermal engineering, sometimes known as applied thermodynamics and heat transfer (ATHT), is a specialized sub-discipline of mechanical engineering that focuses on the storage, transfer, and conversion of heat energy within or between thermal systems. Thermal engineers must apply the laws of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer to design useful systems that generally involve either heat engines or heat exchangers. Thermal engineering is an essential discipline in many modern industries ranging from power plants to aerospace to computer design.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗微粉化是将固体材料颗粒的平均直径减小到通常为微米范围，在某些情况下为纳米范围的过程。它是粉碎的一种形式，是活性药物成分、食品成分、颜料、农用化学品和其他精细化学品生产中的关键单元操作，其中溶解速率、含量均匀性或气溶胶行为取决于粒径。工业微粉化是通过几个不同的技术系列进行的。机械粉碎方法——特别是喷气研磨和低温研磨——在商业药品生产中占主导地位，并按照现行的良好生产规范法规（例如 ICH Q7）进行操作。
Micronization is the process of reducing the average diameter of the particles of a solid material, typically into the micrometre range and in some cases the nanometre range. It is a form of comminution and is a critical unit operation in the manufacture of active pharmaceutical ingredients, food ingredients, pigments, agrochemicals and other fine chemicals where dissolution rate, content uniformity or aerosol behaviour depend on particle size. Industrial micronization is carried out by several distinct technology families. Mechanical comminution methods — particularly air-jet milling and cryogenic milling — dominate commercial pharmaceutical production and operate under current good manufacturing practice regulations such as ICH Q7.
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查看内容许可 ↗扩散是任何事物（例如原子、离子、分子、能量）通常从较高浓度区域到较低浓度区域的净运动。扩散是由吉布斯自由能或化学势的梯度驱动的。可以从较低浓度区域“上坡”扩散到较高浓度区域，如旋节线分解。由于扩散实体固有的随机性，扩散是一个随机过程，可用于模拟许多现实生活中的随机场景。因此，扩散和相应的数学模型被应用于物理学以外的多个领域，例如统计学、概率论、信息论、神经网络、金融和营销。
Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in Gibbs free energy or chemical potential. It is possible to diffuse "uphill" from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, as in spinodal decomposition. Diffusion is a stochastic process due to the inherent randomness of the diffusing entity and can be used to model many real-life stochastic scenarios. Therefore, diffusion and the corresponding mathematical models are used in several fields beyond physics, such as statistics, probability theory, information theory, neural networks, finance, and marketing.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在热力学中，某种物质的化学势指的是，在化学反应或者相变中，此物质的粒子数发生改变时所吸收或放出的能量。在混合物中的某种物质的化学势定义为此热力学系统的吉布斯自由能对此物质粒子数的变化率，即偏导数（其他物质的粒子数及其他系统参数保持不变）。当温度和压强固定时，化学势也被称作偏摩尔吉布斯自由能，或者摩尔化学势。在化学平衡或相平衡状态下，自由能处于极小值，各种物质的化学势与化学计量系数乘积之和为零。 在半导体物理中，零温电子系统的化学势被称为费米能。
In thermodynamics, the chemical potential of a species is the energy that can be absorbed or released due to a change of the particle number of the given species, e.g. in a chemical reaction or phase transition. The chemical potential of a species in a mixture is defined as the rate of change of free energy of a thermodynamic system with respect to the change in the number of atoms or molecules of the species that are added to the system. Thus, it is the partial derivative of the free energy with respect to the amount of the species, all other species' concentrations in the mixture remaining constant. When both temperature and pressure are held constant, and the number of particles is expressed in moles, the chemical potential is the partial molar Gibbs free energy. At chemical equilibrium or in phase equilibrium, the total sum of the product of chemical potentials and stoichiometric coefficients is zero, as the free energy is at a minimum. In a system in diffusion equilibrium, the chemical potential of any chemical species is uniformly the same everywhere throughout the system.
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查看内容许可 ↗在热力学中，临界点是相图中某平衡曲线的终点。其中一个例子就是液态-气态的临界点，是说明物质液态气态共存条件的压强-温度曲线的终点，温度较高时，气态会变成超临界流体，无法单靠加压回到液态。临界点有其温度（临界温度Tc）和压强（临界压强pc），在临界温度和压强下，特定两相之间的边界消失。其他例子包括混合物中的液态–液态临界温度，以及在没有外部磁场下，铁磁性转变成顺磁性的转换点（居里点）。
In thermodynamics, a critical point (or critical state) is the end point of a phase equilibrium curve. One example is the liquid–vapor critical point, the end point of the pressure–temperature curve that designates conditions under which a liquid and its vapor can coexist. At higher temperatures, the gas comes into a supercritical phase, and so cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. At the critical point, defined by a critical temperature Tc and a critical pressure pc, phase boundaries vanish. Other examples include the liquid–liquid critical points in mixtures, and the ferromagnet–paramagnet transition (Curie temperature) in the absence of an external magnetic field.
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查看内容许可 ↗临界乳光（Critical Opalescence）是透明液态物质在二级相变（连续相变）区域内的现象。在其温度压力接近临界点时，液体会看似混浊。最早是由Charles Cagniard de la Tour在1823年在酒精和水的混合物中发现临界乳光，后来托马斯·安德鲁斯在二氧化碳液态气体相变的条件下产生了临界乳光，之后也有许多其他物质的实验。最常用来说明的例子是用二元混合物进行的实验，例如环己烷和甲醇的混合物。当物质的状态接近其临界点时，液体和气体区域的大小开始大幅震荡（液态的相关长度发散）。当密度函数振荡到大约光波长的程度时，光会开始散射，因此原来透明的物质会变的不透光而混浊。 1908年，波兰物理学者马里安·斯茅鲁樵斯在1908年首先提出了高密度下的临界浮光。爱因斯坦在1910年描述了临界浮光跟瑞利散射理论的关系。
In physics, critical opalescence refers to the dramatic increase in scattering of light in the region of a continuous, or second-order, phase transition. Near the critical point, the properties of the liquid and gas phases become indistinguishable. The resulting density fluctuations are on such a large scale that they scatter visible light, giving the substance a cloudy or opalescent look. This phenomenon is an indicator of critical phenomena in fluids and can be observed in various materials under the right conditions.
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查看内容许可 ↗相图（英语：Phase diagram），也称相态图、相平衡状态图，是用来表示相平衡系统的组成与一些参数（如温度、压力）之间关系的一种图。它在物理化学、矿物学和材料科学中具有很重要的地位。
A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering, mineralogy, and materials science is a type of chart used to show conditions (pressure, temperature, etc.) at which thermodynamically distinct phases (such as solid, liquid or gaseous states) occur and coexist at equilibrium.
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查看内容许可 ↗吉布斯相律是由约西亚·吉布斯于19世纪70年代提出的一个公式，说明了在特定相态下，系统的自由度跟其他变量的关系。它是相图的基本原理。 吉布斯相律的表达式为： F = C − P + n {\displaystyle F\;=\;C\;-\;P\;+\;n} 式中， F {\displaystyle F} （或作 π {\displaystyle \pi } ，Φ），表示系统的自由度， C ：系统的独立组元数（number of independent component） P ：相态数目 n ：外界因素，多数取n=2，代表压力和温度；对于熔点极高的固体，蒸汽压的影响非常小，可取n=1。
In thermodynamics, the phase rule is a general principle governing multi-component, multi-phase systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. For a system without chemical reactions, it relates the number of freely varying intensive properties (F) to the number of components (C), the number of phases (P), and number of ways of performing work on the system (N): F = N + C − P + 1 {\displaystyle F=N+C-P+1} Examples of intensive properties that count toward F are the temperature and pressure. For simple liquids and gases, pressure-volume work is the only type of work, in which case N = 1. The rule was derived by American physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs in his landmark paper titled On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, published in parts between 1875 and 1878.
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查看内容许可 ↗在热力学中，混合焓（也称为混合热和过量焓）是混合时物质释放或吸收的焓。当一种物质或化合物与任何其他物质或化合物结合时，混合的焓是两种物质或化合物之间新的相互作用的结果。如果放热释放热量，在极端情况下可能会引起爆炸。在存在其他热项或混合物理想的情况下，在计算混合物时通常可以忽略混合焓。其符号约定与反应函相同：当混合函为正时，混合是吸热的；当混合函为负时，表示混合是放热的。在理想混合物中，混合焓为零。
In thermodynamics, the enthalpy of mixing (also heat of mixing and excess enthalpy) is the enthalpy liberated or absorbed from a substance upon mixing. When a substance or compound is combined with any other substance or compound, the enthalpy of mixing is the consequence of the new interactions between the two substances or compounds. This enthalpy, if released exothermically, can in an extreme case cause an explosion. Enthalpy of mixing can often be ignored in calculations for mixtures where other heat terms exist, or in cases where the mixture is ideal. The sign convention is the same as for enthalpy of reaction: when the enthalpy of mixing is positive, mixing is endothermic, while negative enthalpy of mixing signifies exothermic mixing. In ideal mixtures, the enthalpy of mixing is null.
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查看内容许可 ↗固溶体是指溶质原子溶入溶剂晶格中而仍保持溶剂类型的合金相。通常以一种化学物质为基体溶有其他物质的原子或分子所组成的晶体，在合金和硅酸盐系统中较多见，在多原子物质中亦存在。 当溶剂的晶体结构添加溶质后可以稳定存在且保持均相，则该种混合物可以被视作溶液。 一些混合物可以在很多种浓度情况下形成固溶体，而有一些混合物根本不能形成固溶体。两种物质混合而形成固溶体的倾向是一个复杂的事情，涉及化学、晶体学及量子物理学。
A solid solution, a term commonly used for metals, is a homogeneous mixture of two compounds in solid state and having a single crystal structure. Many examples can be found in metallurgy, geology, and solid-state chemistry. The word "solution" is used to describe the intimate mixing of components at the atomic level and distinguishes these homogeneous materials from physical mixtures of components. Two terms are mainly associated with solid solutions – solvents and solutes, depending on the relative abundance of the atomic species. The solute may incorporate into the solvent crystal lattice substitutionally, by replacing a solvent particle in the lattice, or interstitially, by fitting into the space between solvent particles. Solid solutions consist of fractional composition of one or more of its constituent ions between pure, isostructural extremes, known as end members or parents.
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查看内容许可 ↗成核（英语：Nucleation，也称形核、核化）是相变初始时的“孕育阶段”。天空中的云、雾、雨，燃烧生成的烟，冰的结晶，汽水、啤酒的冒出的泡等的形成，均为成核现象。 成核现象需要成核位点（nucleation site）才可发生。汽化时，液相分子聚集于固相物质上面，分子不断碰撞使得能量聚集，进而形成“汽化中心”；结晶时，若使局部的溶质浓度升高而导致晶体碰撞次数增加，则结晶的晶形构造加快，从而形成“结晶中心”。晶核（英语：crystal nucleus）为晶体的生长中心。晶核的成核有两种形式：初级成核（包括初级均相成核和初级非均相成核）及二次成核。在高于饱和度的情况下，溶液自发形成晶核的过程，称作初级均相成核；若晶核是在溶液外来物的诱导下生成，则称其为初级非均相成核；晶核如在含有溶质晶体的溶液中生成，则称为二次成核。
In thermodynamics, nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or structure via self-assembly or self-organisation within a substance or mixture. Nucleation is typically defined as the process that determines how long an observer must wait before a new phase or self-organised structure appears. For example, if a volume of water is cooled (at atmospheric pressure) significantly below 0 °C, it will tend to freeze into ice. Still, volumes of water cooled only a few degrees below 0 °C often stay completely free of ice for long periods (supercooling). Under these conditions, nucleation of ice is either slow or does not occur at all. However, at lower temperatures nucleation is fast, and ice crystals appear after little or no delay. Nucleation is a common mechanism which generates first-order phase transitions, and it is the start of the process of forming a new thermodynamic phase. In contrast, new phases at continuous phase transitions start to form immediately. Nucleation is often very sensitive to impurities in the system.
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查看内容许可 ↗晶体生长(英语：Crystal growth)是物质结晶过程中，继成核之后进行的一个重要阶段。宏观上，晶体生长过程是晶体——环境相(蒸气、溶液、熔体) 界面向环境相中不断推进的过程，即晶核超过临界大小之后，由包含组成晶体单元的母相从低有序相向高有序晶相的转变。晶体被定义为原子，分子或离子以有序的重复模式排列，晶格在所有三个空间维度上延伸。 因此，晶体生长不同于液滴生长，因为在生长过程中，分子或离子必须落入正确的晶格位置，以便有序的晶体生长。
Crystal growth is a major stage of a crystallization process, and consists of the addition of new atoms, ions, or polymer strings into the characteristic arrangement of the crystalline lattice. The growth typically follows an initial stage of either homogeneous or heterogeneous (surface catalyzed) nucleation, unless a "seed" crystal, purposely added to start the growth, was already present. The action of crystal growth yields a crystalline solid whose atoms or molecules are close packed, with fixed positions in space relative to each other. The crystalline state of matter is characterized by a distinct structural rigidity and very high resistance to deformation (i.e. changes of shape and/or volume). Most crystalline solids have high values both of Young's modulus and of the shear modulus of elasticity.
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查看内容许可 ↗生物催化（英语：Biocatalysis）是使用天然催化剂酶，对有机化合物进行的化学转化。这种反应过程又被称为“生物转化”。离体的酶和活细胞中的酶都可以参与到这一活动中。
Biocatalysis refers to the use of living (biological) systems or their parts to speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds. Both enzymes that have been more or less isolated and enzymes still residing inside living cells are employed for this task. Modern biotechnology, specifically directed evolution, has made the production of modified or non-natural enzymes possible. This has enabled the development of enzymes that can catalyze novel small molecule transformations that may be difficult or impossible using classical synthetic organic chemistry. Utilizing natural or modified enzymes to perform organic synthesis is termed chemoenzymatic synthesis; the reactions performed by the enzyme are classified as chemoenzymatic reactions.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗酶（英语：enzyme，/ˈɛnzaɪm/），又称酵素，是一类大分子生物催化剂。酶能加快化学反应的速度（即具有催化作用）。由酶催化的反应中，反应物称为底物，生成的物质称为产物。几乎所有细胞内的代谢过程都离不开酶。酶能大大加快这些过程中各化学反应进行的速率，使代谢产生的物质和能量能满足生物体的需求。细胞中酶的类型对可在该细胞中发生的代谢途径的类型起决定作用。对酶进行研究的学科称为酶学（enzymology）。 目前已知酶可以催化超过5000种生化反应。大部分酶是蛋白质，有少部分酶是具有催化活性的核糖核酸（RNA）分子，这些酶被称为核酶。酶的特异性是由其独特的三级结构决定的。 和所有的催化剂一样，酶通过降低反应激活能来加快化学反应速率。一些酶可以将底物转化为产物的速率提高数百万倍。一个比较极端的例子是乳清苷-5'-磷酸脱羧酶。该酶可以使在无催化剂条件下需要进行数百万年的化学反应在几毫秒内完成。从化学原理上讲，酶和其它所有催化剂一样，反应不会使其物质量发生变化。酶亦不能改变化学平衡，这一点和其它催化剂也是一样的。酶和其它催化剂的不同之处在于，它们的专一性要强得多。一些分子可以影响酶的活性。如酶抑制剂能降低酶的活性，酶激活剂能提高酶的活性。许多药物及毒物是酶的抑制剂。当超出或小于适宜的温度和pH值后，酶的活性会显著下降。 酶在工业和人们的日常生活中的应用也非常广泛。例如，药厂用特定的合成酶来合成抗生素；洗衣粉中添加酶能加速附着在衣物上的蛋白质、淀粉或脂肪渍的分解；嫩肉粉中加入木瓜蛋白酶能将蛋白质分解为稍小的分子，使肉的口感更嫩滑。
An enzyme is a biological macromolecule, usually a protein, that acts as a biological catalyst, accelerating chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. The molecules on which enzymes act are called substrates, which are converted into products. Nearly all metabolic processes within a cell depend on enzyme catalysis to occur at biologically relevant rates. A metabolic pathway is typically composed of a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps. The study of enzymes is known as enzymology, and a related field focuses on pseudoenzymes—proteins that have lost catalytic activity but may retain regulatory or scaffolding functions, often indicated by alterations in their amino acid sequences or unusual 'pseudocatalytic' behavior. Enzymes are known to catalyze over 5,000 types of biochemical reactions. Other biological catalysts include catalytic RNA molecules, or ribozymes, which are sometimes classified as enzymes despite being composed of RNA rather than protein.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗固定化酶（immobilized enzyme）是一种酶工程的常见技术。将水溶性酶经过物理或化学方法改造，然后固定到特定载体上，成为水不溶性，能反复连续进行有效催化反应，这样的酶称为固定化酶。这种技术可以使得酶对于pH或者温度的抗逆性增加。这种技术也使得酶在反应中得以被固定，因此可以轻易地与反应物或产物中分离，从而多次使用。这种高效的技术在工业化酶促反应中被广泛应用。固定化酶的其中一种技术也被称作全细胞固定化技术。
An immobilized enzyme is an enzyme, with restricted mobility, attached to an inert, insoluble material—such as calcium alginate (produced by reacting a mixture of sodium alginate solution and enzyme solution with calcium chloride). This can provide increased resistance to changes in conditions such as pH or temperature. It also lets enzymes be held in place throughout the reaction, following which they are easily separated from the products and may be used again - a far more efficient process and so is widely used in industry for enzyme catalysed reactions. An alternative to enzyme immobilization is whole cell immobilization. Immobilized enzymes are easily to be handled, simply separated from their products, and can be reused. Enzymes are bio-catalysts which play an essential role in the enhancement of chemical reactions in cells without being persistently modified, wasted, nor resulting in the loss of equilibrium of chemical reactions.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗米-门二氏动力学（英语：Michaelis-Menten kinetics），又称米氏动力学，以德国生物化学家莱昂诺尔·米夏埃利斯和加拿大医师莫德·门滕的名字命名，是酶动力学中一个极为重要的方程，可以描述多种非变异构酶动力学现象，其表示式为： V 0 = V m a x [ S ] K M + [ S ] {\displaystyle V_{0}=V_{max}{\frac {[S]}{K_{M}+[S]}}}
In biochemistry, Michaelis–Menten kinetics, named after Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten, is the simplest case of enzyme kinetics, applied to enzyme-catalysed reactions involving the transformation of one substrate into one product. In 1913, Michaelis and Menten expanded on Victor Henri's fundamental equation of enzyme kinetics, which was established in 1902. It takes the form of a differential equation describing the reaction rate v {\displaystyle v} (rate of formation of product P, with concentration p {\displaystyle p} ) as a function of a {\displaystyle a} , the concentration of the substrate A (using the symbols recommended by the IUBMB).
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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