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Pharmacokinetics生物分布生物分布是一种跟踪感兴趣的化合物在实验动物或人类受试者中移动的方法。例如，在开发用于 PET（正电子发射断层扫描）扫描的新化合物时，放射性同位素与肽（蛋白质的亚基）进行化学连接。这类特殊的同位素会发射正电子（它们是反物质粒子，质量与电子相等，但带正电荷）。当从原子核中射出时，正电子遇到电子并进行湮灭，产生两条沿相反方向传播的伽马射线。这些伽马射线可以测量，并与标准进行比较，进行量化。
Biodistribution is a method of tracking where compounds of interest travel in an experimental animal or human subject. For example, in the development of new compounds for PET (positron emission tomography) scanning, a radioactive isotope is chemically joined with a peptide (subunit of a protein). This particular class of isotopes emits positrons (which are antimatter particles, equal in mass to the electron, but with a positive charge). When ejected from the nucleus, positrons encounter an electron, and undergo annihilation which produces two gamma rays travelling in opposite directions. These gamma rays can be measured, and when compared to a standard, quantified.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 药代动力学（源自古希腊语 pharmakon“药物”和 kinetikos“移动、启动”；参见化学动力学），有时缩写为 PK，是药理学的一个分支，致力于描述服用后身体如何影响特定物质。感兴趣的物质包括任何化学外源物质，如药品、农药、食品添加剂、化妆品等。PK 试图分析化学代谢并发现化学物质从施用到完全从体内消除的过程中的命运。 PK 基于数学模型，该模型非常强调药物血浆浓度与给药后经过的时间之间的关系。
Pharmacokinetics (from Ancient Greek pharmakon 'drug' and kinetikos 'moving, putting in motion'; see chemical kinetics), sometimes abbreviated as PK, is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to describing how the body affects a specific substance after administration. The substances of interest include any chemical xenobiotics such as pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides, food additives, cosmetics, etc. PK attempts to analyze chemical metabolism and discover the fate of a chemical from the moment that it is administered up to the point at which it is completely eliminated from the body. PK is based on mathematical modeling that places great emphasis on the relationship between drug plasma concentration and the time elapsed since the drug's administration.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 药效学（PD）是研究药物（尤其是药物）的生化和生理效应的学科。这些影响可以包括在动物（包括人类）、微生物或生物体组合中表现出来的影响（例如感染）。药效学和药代动力学是药理学的主要分支，本身就是研究内源性和外源性化学物质与生物体相互作用的生物学主题。特别是，药效学是研究药物如何影响生物体，而药代动力学是研究生物体如何影响药物。两者共同影响剂量、益处和不良反应。药效学有时缩写为 PD，药代动力学缩写为 PK，特别是在组合参考中（例如，当谈到 PK/PD 模型时）。
Pharmacodynamics (PD) is the study of the biochemical and physiologic effects of drugs (especially pharmaceutical drugs). The effects can include those manifested within animals (including humans), microorganisms, or combinations of organisms (for example, infection). Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics are the main branches of pharmacology, being itself a topic of biology interested in the study of the interactions of both endogenous and exogenous chemical substances with living organisms. In particular, pharmacodynamics is the study of how a drug affects an organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how the organism affects the drug. Both together influence dosing, benefit, and adverse effects. Pharmacodynamics is sometimes abbreviated as PD and pharmacokinetics as PK, especially in combined reference (for example, when speaking of PK/PD models).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ ADME是吸收、分布、代谢、排泄的四字母缩写（缩写），主要应用于药代动力学、药理学等领域。这四个字母代表量化特定药物随时间在体内如何相互作用的描述符。 ADME 一词于 20 世纪 60 年代首次引入，现已成为科学文献、教学、药物法规和临床实践中广泛使用的标准术语。 ADME 描述了药物化合物在生物体内的配置。这四个标准都影响药物水平和药物暴露于组织的动力学，从而影响化合物作为药物的性能和药理活性。有时还考虑释放和/或毒性，产生 LADME、ADMET 或 LADMET。
ADME is the four-letter abbreviation (acronym) for absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, and is mainly used in fields such as pharmacokinetics and pharmacology. The four letters stand for descriptors quantifying how a given drug interacts within the body over time. The term ADME was first introduced in the 1960s, and has become a standard term widely used in scientific literature, teaching, drug regulations, and clinical practice. ADME describes the disposition of a pharmaceutical compound within an organism. The four criteria all influence the drug levels and kinetics of drug exposure to the tissues and hence influence the performance and pharmacological activity of the compound as a drug. Sometimes liberation and/or toxicity are also considered, yielding LADME, ADMET, or LADMET.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 新陈代谢（/məˈtæbəlɪzəm/，源自希腊语 μεταβολή (metabolē)“变化”）是指生物体内发生的一组维持生命的化学反应。新陈代谢的三个主要功能是将食物中的能量转化为细胞过程可用的形式；将食物转化为大分子（生物聚合物）的组成部分，例如蛋白质、脂质、核酸和一些碳水化合物；以及代谢废物的排泄。这些酶催化反应使生物体能够生长、繁殖、维持其结构并对环境做出反应。新陈代谢这个词也可以指生物体中发生的所有化学反应，包括消化以及物质进入不同细胞和不同细胞之间的运输。从更广泛的意义上讲，细胞内发生的一组反应称为中间（或中间）代谢。
Metabolism (/məˈtæbəlɪzəm/, from Greek μεταβολή (metabolē) 'change') refers to the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions that occur within living organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are the conversion of energy in food into a usable form for cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks of macromolecules (biopolymers) such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the excretion of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transportation of substances into and between different cells. In a broader sense, the set of reactions occurring within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 排泄是代谢废物的消除，这是所有生物体的重要过程。在脊椎动物中，这主要是由肺、肾和皮肤完成的。这与分泌相反，分泌中的物质在离开细胞后可能具有特定的任务。例如，胎盘哺乳动物通过尿道从膀胱排出尿液，尿道是排泄系统的一部分。单细胞生物直接通过细胞表面排出废物。另一个例子是哺乳动物在排便时如何通过肛门释放固体废物（粪便）。在细胞呼吸等活动期间，体内会发生多种化学反应。这些被称为新陈代谢。这些化学反应会产生二氧化碳、水、盐、尿素和尿酸等废物。
Excretion is elimination of metabolic waste, which is an essential process in all organisms. In vertebrates, this is primarily carried out by the lungs, kidneys, and skin. This is in contrast with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell. For example, placental mammals expel urine from the bladder through the urethra, which is part of the excretory system. Unicellular organisms discharge waste products directly through the surface of the cell. Another example would be how mammals release solid waste (feces) through the anus during defecation. During activities such as cellular respiration, several chemical reactions take place in the body. These are known as metabolism. These chemical reactions produce waste products such as carbon dioxide, water, salts, urea and uric acid.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在药理学中，生物利用度是吸收的一个子类别，是达到体循环的给药药物的分数 (%)。根据定义，当药物通过静脉注射时，其生物利用度为 100%。然而，当药物通过静脉以外的途径给药时，由于肠上皮吸收和首过代谢，其生物利用度较低。因此，从数学上讲，生物利用度等于比较血管外制剂的血浆药物浓度曲线下面积与时间的关系(AUC)与血管内制剂的AUC的比率。使用 AUC 是因为 AUC 与进入体循环的剂量成正比。药物的生物利用度是平均值；考虑到总体变异性，偏差范围显示为±。
In pharmacology, bioavailability is a subcategory of absorption and is the fraction (%) of an administered drug that reaches the systemic circulation. By definition, when a medication is administered intravenously, its bioavailability is 100%. However, when a medication is administered via routes other than intravenous, its bioavailability is lower due to intestinal epithelium absorption and first-pass metabolism. Thereby, mathematically, bioavailability equals the ratio of comparing the area under the plasma drug concentration curve versus time (AUC) for the extravascular formulation to the AUC for the intravascular formulation. AUC is used because AUC is proportional to the dose that has entered the systemic circulation. Bioavailability of a drug is an average value; to take population variability into account, deviation range is shown as ±.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生物等效性是药代动力学中的一个术语，用于评估两种专有药物制剂的预期体内生物等效性。如果两种产品被认为是生物等效的，则意味着它们在所有意图和目的上都是相同的。一篇文章定义了生物等效性，指出“如果两种药品在药学上等效，并且以相同摩尔剂量给药后的生物利用度（利用率和利用程度）相似到可以预期它们在功效和安全性方面的效果基本相同，则它们是生物等效的。
Bioequivalence is a term in pharmacokinetics used to assess the expected in vivo biological equivalence of two proprietary preparations of a drug. If two products are said to be bioequivalent it means that they would be expected to be, for all intents and purposes, the same. One article defined bioequivalence by stating that, "two pharmaceutical products are bioequivalent if they are pharmaceutically equivalent and their bioavailabilities (rate and extent of availability) after administration in the same molar dose are similar to such a degree that their effects, with respect to both efficacy and safety, can be expected to be essentially the same.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在药理学和毒理学中，给药途径 (ROA) 是指将药物、液体、毒物或其他物质引入体内的方式。给药途径通常根据物质的应用位置进行分类。常见的例子包括口服和静脉内给药。路线还可以根据行动目标所在的位置进行分类。作用可以是局部（局部）、肠内（全系统作用，但通过胃肠道传递）或肠胃外（全身作用，但通过胃肠道以外的途径传递）。给药途径和剂型是药物递送的方面。给药途径通常按应用地点（或展览）进行分类。
In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration (ROA) is the way by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is introduced into the body. Routes of administration are generally classified by the location at which the substance is applied. Common examples include oral and intravenous administration. Routes can also be classified based on where the target of action is. Action may be topical (local), enteral (system-wide effect, but delivered through the gastrointestinal tract), or parenteral (systemic action, but is delivered by routes other than the GI tract). Route of administration and dosage form are aspects of drug delivery. Routes of administration are usually classified by application location (or exposition).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 静脉治疗（缩写为 IV 治疗）是一种将液体、药物和营养物质直接注入人体静脉的医疗过程。静脉内给药途径通常用于补液或为那些由于精神状态下降或其他原因而不能或不会通过口腔摄入食物或水的人提供营养。它还可用于给药或其他药物治疗，例如血液制品或电解质，以纠正电解质失衡。早在 1400 年代就已有提供静脉治疗的尝试，但直到 1900 年代安全、有效使用技术发展后，这种做法才变得普遍。
Intravenous therapy (abbreviated as IV therapy) is a medical process that administers fluids, medications and nutrients directly into a person's vein. The intravenous route of administration is commonly used for rehydration or to provide nutrients for those who cannot, or will not—due to reduced mental states or otherwise—consume food or water by mouth. It may also be used to administer medications or other medical therapy such as blood products or electrolytes to correct electrolyte imbalances. Attempts at providing intravenous therapy have been recorded as early as the 1400s, but the practice did not become widespread until the 1900s after the development of techniques for safe, effective use.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 输注是在溶剂（例如水、油或酒精）中从植物材料中提取化合物或香料的过程，让材料随着时间的推移保持悬浮在溶剂中（该过程通常称为浸泡）。 “输液”也是所得液体混合物的名称。浸泡过程不同于煎煮（一种涉及煮沸植物材料的提取方法）和渗滤（其中水通过材料（如在咖啡机中））。首次记录精油的使用是在 10 世纪或 11 世纪，由波斯博学家阿维森纳 (Avicenna) 记录，可能是在《医学经典》中。茶的历史远不止于此，最早的记录可以追溯到公元前 10 世纪。
Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a solvent – such as water, oil, or alcohol –, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time (a process often called steeping). "Infusion" is also the name for the resultant fluid mixture. The process of infusion is distinct from both decoction, a method of extraction involving boiling the plant material, and percolation, in which water is passed through the material (as in a coffeemaker). The first recorded use of essential oils was in the 10th or 11th century by the Persian polymath Avicenna, possibly in The Canon of Medicine. Tea is far older than this, dating back to the 10th century BC as the earliest recorded reference.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 口服给药是一种给药途径，其中物质通过口腔摄入、吞咽，然后通过消化系统进行处理。这是许多药物的常见给药途径。口服给药比其他给药途径（例如注射）更容易且疼痛更少。然而，起效相对缓慢，如果在消化系统中不能正确吸收，或者在到达血液之前被消化酶分解，则有效性会降低。口服某些药物可能会引起胃肠道副作用，例如恶心或呕吐。口服给药也只能适用于意识清醒且能够吞咽的患者。 Per os (/ˌpɜːrˈoʊs/; P.O.) 是一个副词短语，字面意思来自拉丁语“通过嘴”或“通过嘴”。
Oral administration is a route of administration whereby a substance is taken through the mouth, swallowed, and then processed via the digestive system. This is a common route of administration for many medications. Oral administration can be easier and less painful than other routes of administration, such as injection. However, the onset of action is relatively slow, and the effectiveness is reduced if it is not absorbed properly in the digestive system, or if it is broken down by digestive enzymes before it can reach the bloodstream. Some medications may cause gastrointestinal side effects, such as nausea or vomiting, when taken orally. Oral administration can also only be applied to conscious patients, and patients able to swallow. Per os (/ˌpɜːrˈoʊs/; P.O.) is an adverbial phrase meaning literally from Latin "through the mouth" or "by mouth".
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 首过效应（FPE）也称为首过代谢（FPM）或系统前代谢，是药物在体内特定部位代谢，导致活性药物在到达作用部位或体循环之前浓度降低的现象。这种效应与口服药物最相关，但有些药物即使通过替代途径（例如静脉注射、肌肉注射等）给药，仍然会经历首过代谢。在这个代谢过程中，药物在吸收过程中损失，一般与肝脏和肠壁有关。肝脏是首过效应的主要部位；然而，它也可能发生在肺部、脉管系统或体内其他代谢活跃的组织中。
The first pass effect (FPE), also known as first-pass metabolism (FPM) or presystemic metabolism, is a phenomenon of drug metabolism at a specific location in the body which leads to a reduction in the concentration of the active drug before it reaches the site of action or systemic circulation. The effect is most associated with orally administered medications, but some drugs still undergo first-pass metabolism even when delivered via an alternate route (e.g., IV, IM, etc.). During this metabolism, drug is lost during the process of absorption which is generally related to the liver and gut wall. The liver is the major site of first pass effect; however, it can also occur in the lungs, vasculature or other metabolically active tissues in the body.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在药理学中，清除率（Cl tot {\displaystyle Cl_{\text{tot}}}）是代表药物消除效率的药代动力学参数。这是物质的消除率除以其浓度。该参数还指示每单位时间将完全去除物质的血浆的理论体积。通常，清除率以 L/h 或 mL/min 为单位进行测量。另一方面，排泄是单位时间从体内排出的物质量的测量（例如，毫克/分钟、微克/分钟等）。虽然物质的清除和排泄相关，但它们不是同一回事。爱丁堡大学医学院的毕业生托马斯·阿迪斯（Thomas Addis）描述了间隙的概念。体内的物质可以被多种器官清除，包括肾、肝、肺等。
In pharmacology, clearance ( C l tot {\displaystyle Cl_{\text{tot}}} ) is a pharmacokinetic parameter representing the efficiency of drug elimination. This is the rate of elimination of a substance divided by its concentration. The parameter also indicates the theoretical volume of plasma from which a substance would be completely removed per unit time. Usually, clearance is measured in L/h or mL/min. Excretion, on the other hand, is a measurement of the amount of a substance removed from the body per unit time (e.g., mg/min, μg/min, etc.). While clearance and excretion of a substance are related, they are not the same thing. The concept of clearance was described by Thomas Addis, a graduate of the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Substances in the body can be cleared by various organs, including the kidneys, liver, lungs, etc.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在药理学中，分布容积（ V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} ，也称为表观分布容积或稀释容积）是包含与血浆中观察到的相同浓度的给药药物总量所需的理论容积。粗略地说，V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} 作为药物的一种特性，衡量的是药物在身体组织而不是血浆中的分布程度。导致高 V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} 的药物特性包括高脂溶性（非极性）、低电离率或低血浆蛋白结合能力。增加 V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} 的疾病包括肾衰竭（由于液体潴留）和肝衰竭（由于体液和血浆蛋白结合改变）。相反，脱水可能会降低 V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} 。
In pharmacology, the volume of distribution ( V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} , also known as apparent volume of distribution or volume of dilution) is the theoretical volume that would be necessary to contain the total amount of an administered drug at the same concentration that it is observed in the blood plasma. Roughly speaking, the V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} , as a property of a drug, measures the degree to which it is distributed in body tissue rather than the blood plasma. Drug properties which cause high V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} include high lipid solubility (non-polarity), low rates of ionization, or low plasma protein binding capabilities. Disease states which increase V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} include kidney failure (due to fluid retention) and liver failure (due to altered body fluid and plasma protein binding). Conversely, dehydration may decrease V D {\displaystyle V_{D}} .
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 消除速率常数 K 或 Ke 是药代动力学中使用的一个值，用于描述药物从人体系统中清除的速率。通常缩写为 K 或 Ke。它相当于在任何特定时刻测量的每单位时间去除的物质的分数，单位为 T。这可以用微分方程进行数学表达，其中 C t {\displaystyle C_{t}} 是系统中给定时间点 t {\displaystyle t} 的血浆药物浓度，d t {\displaystyle dt} 是时间上的无限小变化，而 C t + d t {\displaystyle C_{t+dt}}是时间无限小的变化后系统中药物的浓度。
The elimination rate constant K or Ke is a value used in pharmacokinetics to describe the rate at which a drug is removed from the human system. It is often abbreviated K or Ke. It is equivalent to the fraction of a substance that is removed per unit time measured at any particular instant and has units of T. This can be expressed mathematically with the differential equation where C t {\displaystyle C_{t}} is the blood plasma concentration of drug in the system at a given point in time t {\displaystyle t} , d t {\displaystyle dt} is an infinitely small change in time, and C t + d t {\displaystyle C_{t+dt}} is the concentration of drug in the system after the infinitely small change in time.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在药代动力学中，负荷剂量是药物的初始较高剂量，可以在疗程开始时给予，然后降至较低的维持剂量。负荷剂量对于从体内消除相对较慢的药物（即具有较长的全身半衰期）最有用。此类药物只需要较低的维持剂量，即可将体内的药物量保持在适当的治疗水平，但这也意味着，如果没有初始较高的剂量，体内的药物量需要很长时间才能达到该水平。可以以初始负荷剂量开始的药物包括地高辛、替考拉宁、伏立康唑、普鲁卡因酰胺和氟维司群。
In pharmacokinetics, a loading dose is an initial higher dose of a drug that may be given at the beginning of a course of treatment before dropping down to a lower maintenance dose. A loading dose is most useful for drugs that are eliminated from the body relatively slowly, i.e., which have a long systemic half-life. Such drugs need only a low maintenance dose in order to keep the amount of the drug in the body at the appropriate therapeutic level, but this also means that, without an initial higher dose, it would take a long time for the amount of the drug in the body to reach that level. Drugs which may be started with an initial loading dose include digoxin, teicoplanin, voriconazole, procainamide and fulvestrant.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在药代动力学中，维持剂量是指药物给药的维持速率[mg/h]等于稳态消除速率。不要将其与剂量方案相混淆，剂量方案是一种药物治疗，其中药物的剂量 [mg] 是在重复的基础上以规则的给药间隔给予的。继续维持剂量约 4 至 5 个药物半衰期 (t1/2) 将接近稳态水平。高于维持剂量的一个或多个剂量可以在治疗开始时与负荷剂量一起给予。负荷剂量对于从体内消除相对较慢的药物最有用。此类药物只需要很小的维持剂量即可将药物维持在体内适当的水平，但如果没有初始较高的剂量，达到该水平将需要很长时间。
In pharmacokinetics, a maintenance dose is the maintenance rate [mg/h] of drug administration equal to the rate of elimination at steady state. This is not to be confused with dose regimen, which is a type of drug therapy in which the dose [mg] of a drug is given at a regular dosing interval on a repetitive basis. Continuing the maintenance dose for about 4 to 5 half-lives (t1/2) of the drug will approximate the steady state level. One or more doses higher than the maintenance dose can be given together at the beginning of therapy with a loading dose. A loading dose is most useful for drugs that are eliminated from the body relatively slowly. Such drugs require only a small maintenance dose to maintain the drug at the appropriate level in the body, but without an initial higher dose, reaching that level would take a long time.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ NONMEM 是一个非线性混合效果建模软件包，由 Stuart L. Beal 和 Lewis B. Sheiner 于 20 世纪 70 年代末在旧金山加利福尼亚大学开发，并由 Icon PLC 的 Robert Bauer 进行了扩展。它的名字是非线性混合效应模型的缩写，但它在群体药代动力学、药理学和 PK/PD 模型中尤其强大。 NONMEM 模型是用 NMTRAN 编写的，NMTRAN 是一种专用模型规范语言，可翻译为 FORTRAN、即时编译并由命令行脚本执行。结果以文本输出文件形式呈现，包括表格。有多种界面可以帮助建模者管理文件、跟踪模型开发、拟合优度评估和图形输出，例如 PsN 和 xpose 以及 NONMEM 的 Wings。 NONMEM 的当前版本是 7.5。
NONMEM is a non-linear mixed-effects modeling software package developed by Stuart L. Beal and Lewis B. Sheiner in the late 1970s at University of California, San Francisco, and expanded by Robert Bauer at Icon PLC. Its name is an acronym for nonlinear mixed effects modeling but it is especially powerful in the context of population pharmacokinetics, pharmacometrics, and PK/PD models. NONMEM models are written in NMTRAN, a dedicated model specification language that is translated into FORTRAN, compiled on the fly and executed by a command-line script. Results are presented as text output files including tables. There are multiple interfaces to assist modelers with housekeeping of files, tracking of model development, goodness-of-fit evaluations and graphical output, such as PsN and xpose and Wings for NONMEM. Current version for NONMEM is 7.5.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 混合模型、混合效应模型或混合误差分量模型是同时包含固定效应和随机效应的统计模型。这些模型在物理、生物和社会科学的各个学科中都很有用。它们在对相同统计单位进行重复测量（另见纵向研究）或对相关统计单位集群进行测量的情况下特别有用。混合模型通常优于传统的方差回归模型分析，因为它们不依赖于独立观察假设。此外，它们在处理缺失值和重复测量的不均匀间隔方面具有灵活性。混合模型分析允许在更广泛的相关性和方差-协方差中对测量进行显式建模，避免有偏差的估计结构。
A mixed model, mixed-effects model or mixed error-component model is a statistical model containing both fixed effects and random effects. These models are useful in a wide variety of disciplines in the physical, biological and social sciences. They are particularly useful in settings where repeated measurements are made on the same statistical units (see also longitudinal study), or where measurements are made on clusters of related statistical units. Mixed models are often preferred over traditional analysis of variance regression models because they don't rely on the independent observations assumption. Further, they have their flexibility in dealing with missing values and uneven spacing of repeated measurements. The Mixed model analysis allows measurements to be explicitly modeled in a wider variety of correlation and variance-covariance avoiding biased estimations structures.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在计量经济学中，随机效应模型（也称为方差分量模型）是一种统计模型，其中模型效应是随机变量。它是一种层次线性模型，假设所分析的数据来自不同群体的层次结构，这些群体的差异与该层次结构相关。随机效应模型是混合模型的特例。将此与生物统计学的定义进行对比，因为生物统计学家使用“固定”和“随机”效应分别指代总体平均和受试者特定效应（并且后者通常被假设为未知的潜在变量）。当异质性随时间变化且与自变量不相关时，随机效应模型有助于控制未观察到的异质性。
In econometrics, a random effects model, also called a variance components model, is a statistical model where the model effects are random variables. It is a kind of hierarchical linear model, which assumes that the data being analysed are drawn from a hierarchy of different populations whose differences relate to that hierarchy. A random effects model is a special case of a mixed model. Contrast this to the biostatistics definitions, as biostatisticians use "fixed" and "random" effects to respectively refer to the population-average and subject-specific effects (and where the latter are generally assumed to be unknown, latent variables). Random effect models assist in controlling for unobserved heterogeneity when the heterogeneity is constant over time and not correlated with independent variables.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 异速生长（古希腊语ἄλλος állos“其他”，μέτρον métron“测量”）是对身体尺寸与形状、解剖学、生理学和行为之间关系的研究，由奥托·斯内尔 (Otto Snell) 于 1892 年首次提出，达西·汤普森 (D'Arcy Thompson) 于 1917 年在《论生长与形态》中提出，朱利安·赫胥黎 (Julian Huxley) 于 1932 年提出。异速生长是一项众所周知的研究，特别是在统计学领域形状分析的理论发展，以及生物学中对生物体各部分差异生长速率的实际应用。一种应用是研究各种昆虫物种，总体尺寸的微小变化可能导致腿部、触角或角（例如大力神甲虫）等附肢尺寸的巨大且不成比例的增加。
Allometry (Ancient Greek ἄλλος állos "other", μέτρον métron "measurement") is the study of the relationship of body size to shape, anatomy, physiology and behaviour, first outlined by Otto Snell in 1892, by D'Arcy Thompson in 1917 in On Growth and Form and by Julian Huxley in 1932. Allometry is a well-known study, particularly in statistical shape analysis for its theoretical developments, as well as in biology for practical applications to the differential growth rates of the parts of a living organism's body. One application is in the study of various insect species, where a small change in overall body size can lead to an enormous and disproportionate increase in the dimensions of appendages such as legs, antennae, or horns (e.g., Hercules beetles).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 半最大有效浓度 (EC50) 是药物、抗体或毒物在指定暴露时间后在基线和最大值之间诱导生物反应的浓度的量度。更简单地说，EC50 可以定义为获得 50% [...] 效果所需的浓度，也可以写为 [A]50。它通常用作药物效力的衡量标准，尽管 EC50 的使用优于“效力”，后者因其模糊性而受到批评。 EC50 是浓度的量度，以摩尔单位 (M) 表示，其中 1 M 相当于 1 mol/L。因此，分级剂量响应曲线的 EC50 代表观察到 50% 最大效应时的化合物浓度。
Half maximal effective concentration (EC50) is a measure of the concentration of a drug, antibody or toxicant which induces a biological response halfway between the baseline and maximum after a specified exposure time. More simply, EC50 can be defined as the concentration required to obtain a 50% [...] effect and may be also written as [A]50. It is commonly used as a measure of a drug's potency, although the use of EC50 is preferred over that of 'potency', which has been criticised for its vagueness. EC50 is a measure of concentration, expressed in molar units (M), where 1 M is equivalent to 1 mol/L. The EC50 of a graded dose response curve therefore represents the concentration of a compound where 50% of its maximal effect is observed.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 效能是指以令人满意或预期的程度执行任务的能力。该词与“有效性”同根，并且经常被用作同义词，尽管在药理学中现在经常区分“功效”和“有效性”。药理学和医学中使用的“功效”一词既指药物在研究环境中可实现的最大反应，也指在临床环境中产生足够治疗效果或有益变化的能力。在药理学中，功效 (Emax) 是应用或剂量的药剂（例如小分子药物）可实现的最大反应。内在活性是药物功效相对于观察到的最高功效的药物的相对术语。它是一个纯粹的描述性术语，很少或根本没有机械解释。
Efficacy is the ability to perform a task to a satisfactory or expected degree. The word comes from the same roots as effectiveness, and it has often been used synonymously, although in pharmacology a distinction is now often made between efficacy and effectiveness. The word efficacy is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the maximum response achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research settings, and to the capacity for sufficient therapeutic effect or beneficial change in clinical settings. In pharmacology, efficacy (Emax) is the maximum response achievable from an applied or dosed agent, for instance, a small molecule drug. Intrinsic activity is a relative term for a drug's efficacy relative to a drug with the highest observed efficacy. It is a purely descriptive term that has little or no mechanistic interpretation.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 治疗指数（TI；也称为治疗比）是药物相对于过量风险的相对安全性的定量测量。它是引起毒性的治疗剂的量与引起治疗效果的量的比较。相关术语治疗窗或安全窗是指在功效和毒性之间优化的剂量范围，实现最大的治疗益处而不导致不可接受的副作用或毒性。传统上，对于已批准药物的临床适应症，TI是指在与目标适应症不相容的发生率/严重程度下引起不良反应的药物剂量（例如50%受试者的中毒剂量，TD50）与产生所需药理作用的剂量（例如50%受试者的有效剂量，ED50）的比率。
The therapeutic index (TI; also referred to as therapeutic ratio) is a quantitative measurement of the relative safety of a drug with regard to risk of overdose. It is a comparison of the amount of a therapeutic agent that causes toxicity to the amount that causes the therapeutic effect. The related terms therapeutic window or safety window refer to a range of doses optimized between efficacy and toxicity, achieving the greatest therapeutic benefit without resulting in unacceptable side-effects or toxicity. Classically, for clinical indications of an approved drug, TI refers to the ratio of the dose of the drug that causes adverse effects at an incidence/severity not compatible with the targeted indication (e.g. toxic dose in 50% of subjects, TD50) to the dose that leads to the desired pharmacological effect (e.g. efficacious dose in 50% of subjects, ED50).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生物医学背景下，生物标记或生物标记是某些生物状态或状况的可测量指标。通常使用血液、尿液或软组织来测量和评估生物标志物，以检查正常的生物过程、致病过程或对治疗干预的药理学反应。生物标志物用于许多科学领域。医学领域使用的生物标志物是按其临床应用分类的相对较新的临床工具集的一部分。四个主要类别是分子、生理、组织学和放射学生物标志物。所有四种类型的生物标志物在缩小或指导治疗决策方面都具有临床作用，并遵循预测、预后或诊断的子分类。
In biomedical contexts, a biomarker, or biological marker, is a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated using blood, urine, or soft tissues to examine normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers are used in many scientific fields. Biomarkers used in the medical field, are a part of a relatively new clinical toolset categorized by their clinical applications. The four main classes are molecular, physiologic, histologic and radiographic biomarkers. All four types of biomarkers have a clinical role in narrowing or guiding treatment decisions and follow a sub-categorization of being either predictive, prognostic, or diagnostic.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 血液检测的参考范围（参考区间）是健康专业人员用来解释血液样本的一组医学检测结果的一组值。血液测试的参考范围是在临床化学（也称为“临床生物化学”、“化学病理学”或“纯血化学”）领域内研究的，该病理学领域通常涉及体液分析。应始终使用进行测试的实验室提供的参考范围来解释血液测试结果。参考范围通常定义为 95% 的正常人群落入其中的一组值（即 95% 的预测区间）。它是通过收集大量实验室测试的数据来确定的。
Reference ranges (reference intervals) for blood tests are sets of values used by a health professional to interpret a set of medical test results from blood samples. Reference ranges for blood tests are studied within the field of clinical chemistry (also known as "clinical biochemistry", "chemical pathology" or "pure blood chemistry"), the area of pathology that is generally concerned with analysis of bodily fluids. Blood test results should always be interpreted using the reference range provided by the laboratory that performed the test. A reference range is usually defined as the set of values 95 percent of the normal population falls within (that is, 95% prediction interval). It is determined by collecting data from vast numbers of laboratory tests.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 统计模型的拟合优度描述了它对一组观测值的拟合程度。拟合优度的度量通常总结观察值与相关模型下预期值之间的差异。这些措施可用于统计假设检验，例如检验残差的正态性，检验两个样本是否来自相同的分布（参见柯尔莫哥洛夫-斯米尔诺夫检验），或者结果频率是否遵循指定的分布（参见皮尔逊卡方检验）。在方差分析中，方差被划分成的分量之一可能是失拟平方和。
The goodness of fit of a statistical model describes how well it fits a set of observations. Measures of goodness of fit typically summarize the discrepancy between observed values and the values expected under the model in question. Such measures can be used in statistical hypothesis testing, e.g. to test for normality of residuals, to test whether two samples are drawn from identical distributions (see Kolmogorov–Smirnov test), or whether outcome frequencies follow a specified distribution (see Pearson's chi-square test). In the analysis of variance, one of the components into which the variance is partitioned may be a lack-of-fit sum of squares.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 敏感性分析是研究如何将数学模型或系统（数值或其他）输出的不确定性划分并分配给其输入的不同不确定性来源。这涉及估计敏感度指数，以量化一个输入或一组输入对输出的影响。一个相关的实践是不确定性分析，它更加关注不确定性的量化和不确定性的传播；理想情况下，不确定性和敏感性分析应同时进行。数学模型（例如生物学、气候科学或经济学）可能非常复杂，因此，可能会错误地理解其输入和输出之间的关系。在这种情况下，模型可以被视为黑匣子，即输出是其输入的“不透明”函数。
Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system (numerical or otherwise) can be divided and allocated to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs. This involves estimating sensitivity indices that quantify the influence of an input or group of inputs on the output. A related practice is uncertainty analysis, which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty; ideally, uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem. A mathematical model (for example in biology, climate science, or economics) can be highly complex, and as a result, its relationships between inputs and outputs may be faultily understood. In such cases, the model can be viewed as a black box, i.e. the output is an "opaque" function of its inputs.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 肾衰竭，也称为肾衰竭或终末期肾病 (ESRD)，是一种肾脏无法再充分过滤血液中废物、功能低于正常水平 15% 的疾病。肾衰竭分为急性肾衰竭，其发展迅速且可能消退；慢性肾功能衰竭发展缓慢且往往不可逆转。症状可能包括腿部肿胀、感觉疲倦、呕吐、食欲不振和精神错乱。急性和慢性衰竭的并发症包括尿毒症、高钾血症和容量超负荷。慢性衰竭的并发症还包括心脏病、高血压和贫血。急性肾衰竭的原因包括低血压、尿路阻塞、某些药物、肌肉衰竭和溶血性尿毒症综合征。
Kidney failure, also known as renal failure or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), is a medical condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately filter waste products from the blood, functioning at less than 15% of normal levels. Kidney failure is classified as either acute kidney failure, which develops rapidly and may resolve; and chronic kidney failure, which develops slowly and can often be irreversible. Symptoms may include leg swelling, feeling tired, vomiting, loss of appetite, and confusion. Complications of acute and chronic failure include uremia, hyperkalemia, and volume overload. Complications of chronic failure also include heart disease, high blood pressure, and anaemia. Causes of acute kidney failure include low blood pressure, blockage of the urinary tract, certain medications, muscle breakdown, and hemolytic uremic syndrome.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗