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Microbiology巴斯德消毒法巴氏消毒法（英语：pasteurisation / pasteurization），又称“低温杀菌法”，是一种食物保存方法，由法国生物学家路易·巴斯德于1864年发明。原理是用低于100摄氏度（°C）的短暂加热，进行消毒，以杀死液体中的微生物，使食物在不变质的状况下延长保存时间。确切温度和时间依照液体的种类和它所含的微生物的性质而不同，一般介于70—90 °C（158—194 °F）之间。现在主要用于牛奶、葡萄酒、啤酒、果汁等发酵产品。
In food processing, pasteurization (-isation) is a process of food preservation in which packaged foods (e.g., milk and fruit juices) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life. Pasteurization either destroys or deactivates microorganisms and enzymes that contribute to food spoilage or the risk of disease, including vegetative bacteria, but most bacterial spores survive the process. Pasteurization is named after French microbiologist Louis Pasteur, whose research in the 1860s demonstrated that thermal processing would deactivate unwanted microorganisms in wine. Spoilage enzymes are also inactivated during pasteurization. Today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries for food preservation and food safety.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 宏基因组学是对特定环境中所有生物体的所有遗传物质（环境 DNA）的研究，提供对其组成、多样性和功能潜力的深入了解。宏基因组学使研究人员能够分析环境和临床样本的微生物组成，而无需对单个物种进行耗时的培养。宏基因组学通过揭示以前隐藏的生物多样性和代谢能力，改变了微生物生态学和进化生物学。随着 DNA 测序成本持续下降，宏基因组研究现在通常会分析数百到数千个样本，从而能够大规模探索微生物群落及其在健康和全球生态系统中的作用。宏基因组研究最常采用鸟枪测序，尽管随着技术的进步，长读长测序的使用越来越多。
Metagenomics is the study of all genetic material from all organisms in a particular environment, (environmental DNA) providing insights into their composition, diversity, and functional potential. Metagenomics has allowed researchers to profile the microbial composition of environmental and clinical samples without the need for time-consuming culture of individual species. Metagenomics has transformed microbial ecology and evolutionary biology by uncovering previously hidden biodiversity and metabolic capabilities. As the cost of DNA sequencing continues to decline, metagenomic studies now routinely profile hundreds to thousands of samples, enabling large-scale exploration of microbial communities and their roles in health and global ecosystems. Metagenomic studies most commonly employ shotgun sequencing though long-read sequencing is being increasingly utilised as technologies advance.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生态学中，α多样性（α-多样性）是一个地点在局部范围内的平均物种多样性。该术语由 R. H. Whittaker 与术语 beta 多样性 (β-diversity) 和 gamma 多样性 (γ-diversity) 一起引入。惠特克的想法是，景观中的总物种多样性（伽玛多样性）由两个不同的因素决定，即更局部范围内的站点的平均物种多样性（α多样性）和这些站点之间的差异（β多样性）。
In ecology, alpha diversity (α-diversity) is the mean species diversity in a site at a local scale. The term was introduced by R. H. Whittaker together with the terms beta diversity (β-diversity) and gamma diversity (γ-diversity). Whittaker's idea was that the total species diversity in a landscape (gamma diversity) is determined by two different things, the mean species diversity in sites at a more local scale (alpha diversity) and the differentiation among those sites (beta diversity).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生态学中，β多样性（β-多样性或真正的β多样性）是区域和当地物种多样性之间的比率。该术语由 R. H. Whittaker 与术语 alpha 多样性（α-diversity）和 gamma 多样性（γ-diversity）一起引入。这个想法是，景观中的总物种多样性（γ）由两个不同的因素决定：当地水平的平均物种多样性（α）和当地地点之间的差异（β）。 β多样性的其他表述包括“绝对物种更替”、“惠特克物种更替”和“比例物种更替”。惠特克提出了几种量化分化的方法，后来的生态学家发明了更多方法。因此，现在有许多已定义的 beta 多样性类型。有些人使用β多样性来指代与成分异质性相关的几个指标中的任何一个。
In ecology, beta diversity (β-diversity or true beta diversity) is the ratio between regional and local species diversity. The term was introduced by R. H. Whittaker together with the terms alpha diversity (α-diversity) and gamma diversity (γ-diversity). The idea was that the total species diversity in a landscape (γ) is determined by two different things: the mean species diversity at the local level (α) and the differentiation among local sites (β). Other formulations for beta diversity include "absolute species turnover", "Whittaker's species turnover" and "proportional species turnover". Whittaker proposed several ways of quantifying differentiation, and subsequent generations of ecologists have invented more. As a result, there are now many defined types of beta diversity. Some use beta diversity to refer to any of several indices related to compositional heterogeneity.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 蛋白质组学是对蛋白质的大规模研究。蛋白质组是由生物体或系统产生或修饰的整套蛋白质。蛋白质组学是一个跨学科领域，涵盖从蛋白质组成、结构和活性的整体水平对蛋白质组的探索。虽然蛋白质组的规模和复杂性非常巨大，但最近的技术进步大大扩展了蛋白质组分析的灵敏度和范围。蛋白质组学通常指蛋白质和蛋白质组的大规模实验分析，但通常特指蛋白质纯化和质谱分析。事实上，无论是在由数百万个细胞组成的大样本中，还是在单个细胞中，质谱分析都是分析蛋白质组的最强大的方法。
Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. The proteome is the entire set of proteins produced or modified by an organism or system. Proteomics is an interdisciplinary field that covers the exploration of proteomes from the overall level of protein composition, structure, and activity. While the scale and complexity of the proteome is formidable, recent technological progress has substantially expanded the sensitivity and scope of proteome analysis. Proteomics generally denotes the large-scale experimental analysis of proteins and proteomes, but often refers specifically to protein purification and mass spectrometry. Indeed, mass spectrometry is the most powerful method for analysis of proteomes, both in large samples composed of millions of cells, and in single cells.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 代谢组学是对涉及代谢物、小分子底物、中间体和细胞代谢产物的化学过程的科学研究。具体来说，代谢组学是“对特定细胞过程留下的独特化学指纹的系统研究”，即对其小分子代谢物谱的研究。代谢组代表生物细胞、组织、器官或生物体中完整的代谢物集，它们是细胞过程的最终产物。信使 RNA (mRNA)、基因表达数据和蛋白质组分析揭示了细胞中产生的一组基因产物，这些数据代表了细胞功能的一个方面。相反，代谢分析可以提供该细胞生理学的即时快照，因此，代谢组学提供了生物体的直接“生理状态的功能读数”。
Metabolomics is the scientific study of chemical processes involving metabolites, the small molecule substrates, intermediates, and products of cell metabolism. Specifically, metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind", the study of their small-molecule metabolite profiles. The metabolome represents the complete set of metabolites in a biological cell, tissue, organ, or organism, which are the end products of cellular processes. Messenger RNA (mRNA), gene expression data, and proteomic analyses reveal the set of gene products being produced in the cell, data that represents one aspect of cellular function. Conversely, metabolic profiling can give an instantaneous snapshot of the physiology of that cell, and thus, metabolomics provides a direct "functional readout of the physiological state" of an organism.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 再现性与可重复性和可重复性密切相关，是支撑科学方法的主要原则。研究结果的可重复性意味着，当研究被重复时，通过实验或观察性研究或数据集统计分析获得的结果应该再次获得高度的可靠性。复制有不同类型，但复制研究通常涉及使用相同方法的不同研究人员。只有在一次或多次成功复制之后，结果才能被视为科学知识。
Reproducibility, closely related to replicability and repeatability, is a major principle underpinning the scientific method. For the findings of a study to be reproducible means that results obtained by an experiment or an observational study or in a statistical analysis of a data set should be achieved again with a high degree of reliability when the study is replicated. There are different kinds of replication but typically replication studies involve different researchers using the same methodology. Only after one or several such successful replications should a result be recognized as scientific knowledge.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 石营养生物是利用无机底物（通常是矿物来源）获得还原当量的生物体，用于通过有氧或无氧呼吸进行生物合成（例如二氧化碳固定）或能量保存（即 ATP 产生）。虽然广义上的石质营养生物包括像植物这样的光石营养生物，但化学石营养生物则完全是微生物。没有已知的大型动物具有使用无机化合物作为电子源的能力。大型动物和石营养生物可以形成共生关系，在这种情况下，石营养生物被称为“原核共生体”。一个例子是巨型管虫中的化能营养细菌。或质体，它们是植物细胞内的细胞器，可能是从光养蓝藻类生物体进化而来的。化能营养生物属于细菌和古细菌领域。
Lithotrophs are a diverse group of organisms using an inorganic substrate (usually of mineral origin) to obtain reducing equivalents for use in biosynthesis (e.g., carbon dioxide fixation) or energy conservation (i.e., ATP production) via aerobic or anaerobic respiration. While lithotrophs in the broader sense include photolithotrophs like plants, chemolithotrophs are exclusively microorganisms; no known macrofauna possesses the ability to use inorganic compounds as electron sources. Macrofauna and lithotrophs can form symbiotic relationships, in which case the lithotrophs are called "prokaryotic symbionts". An example of this is chemolithotrophic bacteria in giant tube worms; or plastids, which are organelles within plant cells that may have evolved from photolithotrophic cyanobacteria-like organisms. Chemolithotrophs belong to the domains Bacteria and Archaea.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 微生物暗物质（MDM）包含绝大多数微生物有机体（通常是细菌和古细菌），由于缺乏知识或无法提供所需的生长条件，微生物学家无法在实验室中培养（例如挑剔的微生物）。微生物暗物质类似于物理学和宇宙学中的暗物质，因为它在研究中难以捉摸，并且对我们理解生物多样性很重要。微生物暗物质在多个生态系统中无处不在且丰富，但由于检测和培养这些物种的困难，研究仍然具有挑战性。此前曾有人提出，特定生态位中只有百分之一的微生物是可培养的，但这一估计一直存在争议。
Microbial dark matter (MDM) comprises the vast majority of microbial organisms (usually bacteria and archaea) that microbiologists are unable to culture in the laboratory (such as fastidious microorganisms), due to lack of knowledge or ability to supply the required growth conditions. Microbial dark matter is analogous to the dark matter of physics and cosmology due to its elusiveness in research and importance to our understanding of biological diversity. Microbial dark matter can be found ubiquitously and abundantly across multiple ecosystems, but remains challenging to study due to difficulties in detecting and culturing these species. It was previously proposed that as little as one percent of microbes in a given ecological niche are culturable , but this estimate has been debated .
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在分子生物学和遗传学领域，泛基因组（泛基因组或超基因组）是来自一个分支内所有菌株的整套基因。更一般地说，它是一个分支的所有基因组的联合。泛基因组可以分为核心泛基因组（包含所有个体中存在的基因）、外壳泛基因组（包含两个或多个菌株中存在的基因）和云泛基因组（包含仅在单个菌株中发现的基因）。一些作者还将云基因组称为辅助基因组，其中包含菌株子集中存在的“可有可无的”基因和菌株特异性基因。请注意，“可有可无”一词的使用受到了质疑，至少在植物基因组中，因为辅助基因“在基因组进化以及基因组与环境之间复杂的相互作用中发挥着重要作用”。泛基因组的研究领域称为泛基因组学。
In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a pan-genome (pangenome or supragenome) is the entire set of genes from all strains within a clade. More generally, it is the union of all the genomes of a clade. The pan-genome can be broken down into a core pangenome that contains genes present in all individuals, a shell pangenome that contains genes present in two or more strains, and a cloud pangenome that contains genes only found in a single strain. Some authors also refer to the cloud genome as accessory genome containing 'dispensable' genes present in a subset of the strains and strain-specific genes. Note that the use of the term 'dispensable' has been questioned, at least in plant genomes, as accessory genes play "an important role in genome evolution and in the complex interplay between the genome and the environment". The field of study of pangenomes is called pangenomics.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 死亡转录组是指在死亡后体内器官中仍然活跃或觉醒的基因组部分产生的所有 RNA 转录本。它与死亡学的生物化学、微生物学和生物物理学的研究相关，特别是在法医学领域。一些基因可能在细胞死亡后持续表达长达 48 小时，产生新的 mRNA。自胎儿发育结束以来通常受到抑制的某些基因可能在此时再次表达。
The thanatotranscriptome denotes all RNA transcripts produced from the portions of the genome still active or awakened in the internal organs of a body following its death. It is relevant to the study of the biochemistry, microbiology, and biophysics of thanatology, in particular within forensic science. Some genes may continue to be expressed in cells for up to 48 hours after death, producing new mRNA. Certain genes that are generally inhibited since the end of fetal development may be expressed again at this time.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 活力 PCR，也称为 v-PCR 或 vPCR，是 PCR 的演变。通过使用特定的嵌入光反应试剂对样品进行简单的预处理，可以中和死细胞的 DNA。因此，PCR 只能检测到来自活细胞的 DNA。这种方法大大扩展了 PCR 程序的分析范围。仅检测活细胞的能力变得非常重要，因为在关键应用中，了解活细胞的数量比了解总细胞水平更重要。例如：食品和水质控制、传染病诊断、兽医应用、生态动力学……
Viability PCR, also named v-PCR or vPCR, is an evolution of PCR. Through the use of a simple pre-treatment of the sample by the means of specific intercalating photo-reactive reagents it's possible to neutralize the DNA of dead cells. As a result, only DNA from live cells will be detected by PCR. This approach expands a lot the analytical scope of PCR procedures. The capability to detect only living cells become very important, because in key applications is more important to know the amount of live cells, than the total cell level. Examples of this are: food and water quality control, infectious diseases diagnostic, veterinary applications, ecological dynamics...
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 接合（英文：Conjugation，又译结合），又称为接合作用、细菌接合，是发生于原核生物间的现象，指的是两个细菌之间发生的一种遗传物质交换现象，属于细菌有性生殖的一个重要阶段。在接合现象发生时，两个细胞直接接合或者通过类似于桥一样的通道接合，并且发生基因的转移。这种现象是在1946年被Joshua Lederberg和Edward Tatum所发现，接合与转化和转导都被称作基因水平转移机制，注意的是这种机制并不一定需要两个细胞-细胞间的直接接触。 接合经常被认为是细菌中有性生殖，相当于动物间的交配，因为它有涉及到基因的交换。在接合的过程中的供体细胞提供了一种结合或者可移动的遗传成分，这些成分一般是质粒或转座子。大多数接合质粒有一个确保受体细胞并不含有相似的遗传成分的系统。 遗传信息的转移通常对受体是有益的。好处包括获得抗生素耐药性，或者获得其他的特异性以应对环境的变化。这种对受体有益的质粒可以被视作内共生生物。然而从别的方面来看，细菌的寄生和接合可以作为细菌的一种进化方式使它们得到个体的繁衍与基因的扩散。
Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. This typically takes place through a type IV secretion system, a type of pilus. It is a parasexual mode of reproduction in bacteria. It is a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer as are transformation and transduction although these two other mechanisms do not involve cell-to-cell contact. Classical E. coli bacterial conjugation is often regarded as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating, since it involves the exchange of genetic material. However, it is not sexual reproduction, since no exchange of gamete occurs, and indeed no generation of a new organism: instead, an existing organism is transformed.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 环状染色体是细菌、古细菌、线粒体和叶绿体中的染色体，以环状 DNA 分子的形式存在，与大多数真核生物的线性染色体不同。大多数原核生物染色体含有环状 DNA 分子。其主要优点是 DNA 没有游离末端（端粒）。相比之下，大多数真核生物具有线性 DNA，需要复杂的机制来维持端粒的稳定性和复制 DNA。然而，环状染色体的缺点是，在复制后，两个子代环状染色体可以保持相互连接或缠结，并且必须将它们解开，以便每个细胞在细胞分裂期间继承染色体的一个完整副本。
A circular chromosome is a chromosome in bacteria, archaea, mitochondria, and chloroplasts, in the form of a molecule of circular DNA, unlike the linear chromosome of most eukaryotes. Most prokaryote chromosomes contain a circular DNA molecule. This has the major advantage of having no free ends (telomeres) to the DNA. By contrast, most eukaryotes have linear DNA requiring elaborate mechanisms to maintain the stability of the telomeres and replicate the DNA. However, a circular chromosome has the disadvantage that after replication, the two progeny circular chromosomes can remain interlinked or tangled, and they must be extricated so that each cell inherits one complete copy of the chromosome during cell division.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 基因命名法是基因的科学命名，基因是生物体的遗传单位。它还与蛋白质命名法密切相关，因为基因和它们编码的蛋白质通常具有相似的命名法。一个国际委员会于 1957 年发布了关于遗传符号和命名法的建议。在 20 世纪 60 年代，人们认识到需要制定人类基因名称和符号的正式指南，并于 1979 年发布了完整的指南（爱丁堡人类基因组会议）。其他几个属特定研究团体（例如果蝇、小鼠）也采用了命名标准，并将其发布在相关模式生物网站和科学期刊上，包括《遗传学趋势遗传命名指南》。
Gene nomenclature is the scientific naming of genes, the units of heredity in living organisms. It is also closely associated with protein nomenclature, as genes and the proteins they code for usually have similar nomenclature. An international committee published recommendations for genetic symbols and nomenclature in 1957. The need to develop formal guidelines for human gene names and symbols was recognized in the 1960s and full guidelines were issued in 1979 (Edinburgh Human Genome Meeting). Several other genus-specific research communities (e.g., Drosophila fruit flies, Mus mice) have adopted nomenclature standards as well, and have published them on the relevant model organism websites and in scientific journals, including the Trends in Genetics Genetic Nomenclature Guide.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 整合子是一种遗传机制，允许细菌通过新基因的储存和表达来快速适应和进化。这些基因嵌入一种称为基因盒（该术语最近改为整合子盒）的特定遗传结构中，该结构通常携带一个无启动子开放阅读框（ORF）和一个重组位点（attC）。通过整合酶介导的位点特异性重组反应，整合子盒被整合到整合子平台的attI位点。
Integrons are genetic mechanisms that allow bacteria to adapt and evolve rapidly through the stockpiling and expression of new genes. These genes are embedded in a specific genetic structure called gene cassette (a term that is lately changing to integron cassette) that generally carries one promoterless open reading frame (ORF) together with a recombination site (attC). Integron cassettes are incorporated to the attI site of the integron platform by site-specific recombination reactions mediated by the integrase.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ DPVweb 是一个供病毒学家研究植物病毒的数据库，结合了分类学、生物信息学和症状数据。
DPVweb is a database for virologists working on plant viruses combining taxonomic, bioinformatic and symptom data.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ GISAID ()，即共享所有流感数据的全球倡议，以前是共享禽流感数据的全球倡议，是一项于 2008 年成立的全球科学倡议，旨在提供流感病毒基因组数据的获取。该数据库已扩大到包括导致 COVID-19 大流行的冠状病毒以及其他病原体。该数据库被描述为“世界上最大的 COVID-19 序列存储库”。 GISAID 促进基因组流行病学和实时监测，以监测全球新的 COVID-19 病毒株的出现。自作为通过传统公共领域档案共享禽流感数据的替代方案成立以来，GISAID 促进了 2009 年 H1N1 大流行、2013 年 H7N9 流行、COVID-19 大流行和 2022-2023 年 MPOX 疫情期间爆发基因组数据的交换。
GISAID (), the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data, previously the Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data, is a global science initiative established in 2008 to provide access to genomic data of influenza viruses. The database was expanded to include the coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other pathogens. The database has been described as "the world's largest repository of COVID-19 sequences". GISAID facilitates genomic epidemiology and real-time surveillance to monitor the emergence of new COVID-19 viral strains across the planet. Since its establishment as an alternative to sharing avian influenza data via conventional public-domain archives, GISAID has facilitated the exchange of outbreak genome data during the H1N1 pandemic in 2009, the H7N9 epidemic in 2013, the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2022–2023 mpox outbreak.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 逆转录病毒整合酶 (IN) 是逆转录病毒（例如 HIV）产生的一种酶，可将其遗传信息整合到其感染的宿主细胞的遗传信息中（在其间形成共价连接）。逆转录病毒 IN 不应与生物技术中使用的噬菌体整合酶（重组酶）相混淆，例如 λ 噬菌体整合酶，如位点特异性重组中所讨论的。与病毒DNA末端结合的IN大分子的大分子复合物被称为整合体； IN 是该复合物和逆转录病毒预整合复合物的关键成分。
Retroviral integrase (IN) is an enzyme produced by a retrovirus (such as HIV) that integrates (forms covalent links between) its genetic information into that of the host cell it infects. Retroviral INs are not to be confused with phage integrases (recombinases) used in biotechnology, such as λ phage integrase, as discussed in site-specific recombination. The macromolecular complex of an IN macromolecule bound to the ends of the viral DNA ends has been referred to as the intasome; IN is a key component in this and the retroviral pre-integration complex.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ BIOPAN 是欧洲航天局 (ESA) 的一个多用户研究计划，旨在研究太空环境对生物材料的影响。 BIOPAN 中的实验暴露于太阳和宇宙辐射、太空真空和失重状态，或其中的一种。可选地，可以稳定实验温度。 BIOPAN 举办天体生物学、放射生物学和材料科学实验。 BIOPAN 设施安装在俄罗斯福田下降舱的外表面，从包裹卫星的热毯中伸出。
BIOPAN is a multi-user research program by the European Space Agency (ESA) designed to investigate the effect of the space environment on biological material. The experiments in BIOPAN are exposed to solar and cosmic radiation, the space vacuum and weightlessness, or a selection thereof. Optionally, the experiment temperature can be stabilized. BIOPAN hosts astrobiology, radiobiology and materials science experiments. The BIOPAN facility is installed on the external surface of Russian Foton descent capsules protruding from the thermal blanket that envelops the satellite.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 酵母的交配，也称为酵母有性繁殖，是促进酵母物种遗传多样性和适应的生物过程。酵母物种，例如酿酒酵母（面包酵母），是单细胞真核生物，可以作为包含一组染色体的单倍体细胞或包含两组染色体的二倍体细胞存在。单倍体酵母细胞有两种交配类型，a 和 α，每种都产生特定的信息素来识别相反类型并与之相互作用，从而表现出简单的性别分化。酵母细胞的交配类型由称为 MAT 的特定基因位点决定，该基因位点控制其交配行为。单倍体酵母可以通过某种形式的基因重组来改变交配类型，使它们能够在每个细胞周期中频繁地改变交配类型。
The mating of yeast, also known as yeast sexual reproduction, is a biological process that promotes genetic diversity and adaptation in yeast species. Yeast species, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast), are single-celled eukaryotes that can exist as either haploid cells, which contain a single set of chromosomes, or diploid cells, which contain two sets of chromosomes. Haploid yeast cells come in two mating types, a and α, each producing specific pheromones to identify and interact with the opposite type, thus displaying simple sexual differentiation. A yeast cell's mating type is determined by a specific genetic locus known as MAT, which governs its mating behaviour. Haploid yeast can switch mating types through a form of genetic recombination, allowing them to change mating type as often as every cell cycle.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 交叉耐药性是指某种物质对具有相似作用机制的几种物质产生耐药性。例如，如果某种类型的细菌对一种抗生素产生耐药性，那么该细菌也会对针对相同蛋白质或使用相同途径进入细菌的其他几种抗生素产生耐药性。萘啶酸和环丙沙星发生交叉耐药性的真实例子，这两种药物都是喹诺酮类抗生素。当细菌对环丙沙星产生耐药性时，它们也会对萘啶酸产生耐药性，因为这两种药物都会抑制拓扑异构酶（DNA 复制中的关键酶）。由于交叉耐药性，噬菌体疗法等抗菌治疗很快就会失去对细菌的功效。这使得交叉耐药性成为设计进化疗法的重要考虑因素。
Cross-resistance is when something develops resistance to several substances that have a similar mechanism of action. For example, if a certain type of bacteria develops antimicrobial resistance to one antibiotic, that bacteria will also have resistance to several other antibiotics that target the same protein or use the same route to get into the bacterium. A real example of cross-resistance occurred for nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin, which are both quinolone antibiotics. When bacteria developed resistance to ciprofloxacin, they also developed resistance to nalidixic acid because both drugs inhibit topoisomerase, a key enzyme in DNA replication. Due to cross-resistance, antimicrobial treatments like phage therapy can quickly lose their efficacy against bacteria. This makes cross-resistance an important consideration in designing evolutionary therapies.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 微生物学（源自古希腊语 μῑκρος (mīkros)“小”、βίος (bíos)“生命”和 -λογία (-logía)“研究”）是对微生物的科学研究，微生物包括单细胞（单细胞）、多细胞（由复杂细胞组成）或无细胞（缺乏细胞）。微生物学涵盖许多子学科，包括病毒学、细菌学、原生生物学、真菌学、免疫学和寄生虫学。构成微生物世界的生物体被表征为原核生物或真核生物。真核微生物拥有膜结合细胞器，包括真菌和原生生物，而原核生物通常被分类为缺乏膜结合细胞器，包括细菌和古细菌。微生物学家传统上依靠培养、染色和显微镜来分离和鉴定微生物。
Microbiology (from Ancient Greek μῑκρος (mīkros) 'small', βίος (bíos) 'life' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of') is the scientific study of microorganisms, those being of unicellular (single-celled), multicellular (consisting of complex cells), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology, and parasitology. The organisms that constitute the microbial world are characterized as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Eukaryotic microorganisms possess membrane-bound organelles and include fungi and protists, whereas prokaryotic organisms are conventionally classified as lacking membrane-bound organelles and include Bacteria and Archaea. Microbiologists traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy for the isolation and identification of microorganisms.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 细菌学是生物学的一个分支和专业，研究细菌的形态、生态、遗传学和生物化学以及与其相关的许多其他方面。微生物学的这一细分领域涉及细菌种类的鉴定、分类和表征。由于对细菌以外的微生物（如原生动物、真菌和非微生物病毒）的思考和工作的相似性，细菌学领域一直有延伸为微生物学的趋势。这些术语以前经常互换使用。然而，细菌学可以被归类为一门独特的科学。细菌学是对细菌的研究。细菌学是从 19 世纪医生需要应用细菌理论来解决与医院内疾病传播有关的问题而发展而来的。
Bacteriology is the branch and specialty of biology that studies the morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other aspects related to them. This subdivision of microbiology involves the identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species. Because of the similarity of thinking and working with microorganisms other than bacteria, such as protozoa, fungi, and non-microorganism viruses, there has been a tendency for the field of bacteriology to extend as microbiology. The terms were formerly often used interchangeably. However, bacteriology can be classified as a distinct science. Bacteriology is the study of bacteria. Bacteriology evolved from physicians needing to apply the germ theory to address the concerns relating to disease spreading in hospitals the 19th century.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 病毒学是对生物病毒的科学研究。它是微生物学的一个子领域，重点研究它们的检测、结构、分类和进化，它们的感染方法和利用宿主细胞进行繁殖，它们与宿主生物体生理和免疫的相互作用，它们引起的疾病，分离和培养它们的技术，以及它们在研究和治疗中的应用。 Martinus Beijerinck (1898) 将烟草花叶病 (TMV) 的病原体鉴定为一种新型病原体，现在被认为是病毒学领域作为一门不同于细菌学的学科的正式开端。他意识到来源既不是细菌也不是真菌感染，而是完全不同的东西。拜耶林克用“病毒”这个词来描述他的“contagium vivum Fluidum”（“传染性活液”）中的神秘媒介。
Virology is the scientific study of biological viruses. It is a subfield of microbiology that focuses on their detection, structure, classification and evolution, their methods of infection and exploitation of host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. The identification of the causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease (TMV) as a novel pathogen by Martinus Beijerinck (1898) is now acknowledged as being the official beginning of the field of virology as a discipline distinct from bacteriology. He realized the source was neither a bacterial nor a fungal infection, but something completely different. Beijerinck used the word "virus" to describe the mysterious agent in his 'contagium vivum fluidum' ('contagious living fluid').
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 真菌学是生物学的一个分支，涉及真菌的研究，包括真菌的分类学、遗传学、生化特性和人类的使用。真菌可以是火种、食物和传统药物的来源，也可以是致幻剂、毒药和感染的来源。酵母是真菌王国中使用最广泛的成员之一，特别是在食品制造领域。真菌学与植物病理学（植物病害研究）领域有重叠。这两个学科密切相关，因为大多数植物病原体是真菌。专门研究真菌学的生物学家被称为真菌学家。真菌学一词源自古希腊语：μύκης (mukēs)，意思是“真菌”，后缀 -λογία (-logia)，意思是“研究”。先驱真菌学家包括埃利亚斯·马格努斯·弗里斯、克里斯蒂安·亨德里克·佩尔松、海因里希·安东·德巴里、伊丽莎白·伊顿·莫尔斯和刘易斯·大卫·德·施韦尼茨。
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their taxonomy, genetics, biochemical properties, and use by humans. Fungi can be a source of tinder, food, and traditional medicine, as well as entheogens, poison, and infection. Yeasts are among the most heavily utilized members of the fungus kingdom, particularly in food manufacturing. Mycology overlaps with the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases. The two disciplines are closely related, because the majority of plant pathogens are fungi. A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist. The word mycology comes from the Ancient Greek: μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus" and the suffix -λογία (-logia), meaning "study." Pioneer mycologists included Elias Magnus Fries, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, Heinrich Anton de Bary, Elizabeth Eaton Morse, and Lewis David de Schweinitz.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 微生物生态学（或环境微生物学）是研究微生物与其环境相互作用的学科。众所周知，微生物在其物种和其他物种内具有有益、中性和有害的生态关系。许多科学家研究了自然与微生物之间的关系：Martinus Beijerinck、Sergei Winogradsky、Louis Pasteur、Robert Koch、Lorenz Hiltner、Dionicia Gamboa 等，以了解这些微生物在生物和化学途径中的具体作用以及这些微生物的进化。目前，有几种类型的生物技术允许科学家分析这些微生物的生物和化学特性。已知许多微生物与环境中的其他生物体形成不同的共生关系。
Microbial ecology (or environmental microbiology) is a discipline where the interaction of microorganisms and their environment are studied. Microorganisms are known to have beneficial, neutral and harmful ecological relationships within their species and other species. Many scientists have studied the relationship between nature and microorganisms: Martinus Beijerinck, Sergei Winogradsky, Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Lorenz Hiltner, Dionicia Gamboa and many more, to understand the specific roles that these microorganisms have in biological and chemical pathways and the evolution of these microorganisms. Currently, there are several types of biotechnologies that have allowed scientists to analyze the biological and chemical properties of these microorganisms. Many of these microorganisms have been known to form different symbiotic relationships with other organisms in their environment.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 微生物组（源自古希腊语 μικρός (mikrós)“小”和 βίος (bíos)“生命”）是通常可以在任何特定栖息地一起生活的微生物群落。 Whipps 等人于 1988 年对其进行了更精确的定义。 “一个特征性的微生物群落，占据一个相当明确的栖息地，具有独特的理化特性。因此，该术语不仅指所涉及的微生物，还包括它们的活动范围”。 2020年，国际专家小组公布了他们关于微生物组定义的讨论结果。
A microbiome (from Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) 'small' and βίος (bíos) 'life') is the community of microorganisms that can usually be found living together in any given habitat. It was defined more precisely in 1988 by Whipps et al. as "a characteristic microbial community occupying a reasonably well-defined habitat which has distinct physio-chemical properties. The term thus not only refers to the microorganisms involved but also encompasses their theatre of activity". In 2020, an international panel of experts published the outcome of their discussions on the definition of the microbiome.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 细菌是普遍存在的，大多是自由生活的生物体，通常由一个生物细胞组成。它们构成了原核微生物的一大领域。细菌的长度通常只有几微米，是地球上最早出现的生命形式之一，并且存在于地球的大部分栖息地。细菌栖息在空气、土壤、水、酸性温泉、放射性废物和地壳深层生物圈中。细菌通过回收养分和固定大气中的氮，在养分循环的许多阶段发挥着至关重要的作用。营养循环包括尸体的分解；细菌是这个过程中腐败阶段的罪魁祸首。
Bacteria are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit the air, soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of Earth's crust. Bacteria play a vital role in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients and the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of dead bodies; bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 古菌 (/ɑːrˈkiːə/ ar-KEE-ə) 是生物体的一个领域。传统上，古细菌只包括其原核生物成员，但后来发现是并系的，因为已知真核生物是从古细菌进化而来的。尽管古生菌领域在分类上包括真核生物，但英语中的古生菌一词（sing. archaeon /ɑːrˈkiːɒn/ ar-KEE-on；源自古希腊语 ἀρχαῖον arkhaîon 'ancient'）仍然通常特指古生菌的原核生物成员。古细菌最初被归类为细菌，被称为古细菌（/ˌɑːrkibækˈtɪəriə/，古细菌界），但这种分类方法已经不再使用。古细菌细胞具有区别于细菌和真核细胞的独特特性，包括： 由醚连接的脂质制成的细胞膜；新陈代谢，例如产甲烷作用；以及被称为古菌的独特运动结构。
Archaea (/ɑːrˈkiːə/ ar-KEE-ə) is a domain of organisms. Traditionally, Archaea included only its prokaryotic members, but has since been found to be paraphyletic, as eukaryotes are known to have evolved from archaea. Even though the domain Archaea cladistically includes eukaryotes, the term archaea (sing. archaeon /ɑːrˈkiːɒn/ ar-KEE-on; from Ancient Greek ἀρχαῖον arkhaîon 'ancient') in English still generally refers specifically to prokaryotic members of Archaea. Archaea were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (/ˌɑːrkibækˈtɪəriə/, in the Archaebacteria kingdom), but this taxonomic approach has fallen out of use. Archaeal cells have unique properties distinguishing them from Bacteria and Eukaryota, including: cell membranes made of ether-linked lipids; metabolisms such as methanogenesis; and a unique motility structure known as an archaellum.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
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