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Microbiology真菌真菌（复数：真菌或真菌）是真核生物组的任何成员，包括酵母、霉菌和蘑菇。这些生物被归类为真菌生物界。将真菌置于与植物、细菌和一些原生生物不同的界中的一个特征是其细胞壁中含有几丁质。真菌和动物一样，是异养生物：它们通过吸收溶解的有机分子来获取营养，通常是通过将消化酶分泌到环境中。真菌不进行光合作用。生长是它们的运动方式，但孢子（其中一些有鞭毛）除外，孢子可以通过空气或水传播。真菌是生态系统中的主要分解者。
A fungus (pl.: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. These organisms are classified in the biological kingdom Fungi. A characteristic that places fungus in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is having chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs: they acquire their nutrition by absorbing dissolved organic molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. A fungus does not perform photosynthesis. Growth is their means of motility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 病毒是一种亚微观传染原，仅在生物体的活细胞内复制。病毒感染所有生命形式，从动物和植物到微生物，包括细菌和古细菌。病毒几乎存在于地球上的每个生态系统中，并且是数量最多的生物实体类型。自 20 世纪 90 年代首次发现烟草花叶病毒以来，数百万种病毒中的 16,000 多种已被详细描述。对病毒的研究被称为病毒学，是微生物学的一个分支专业。当被感染时，宿主细胞通常被迫快速产生数千个原始病毒的副本。
A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity. Since the first discovery of a virus, the tobacco mosaic virus, in the 1890s, more than 16,000 of the millions of virus species have been described in detail. The study of viruses is known as virology, a subspeciality of microbiology. When infected, a host cell is often forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 噬菌体（/bækˈtɪrioʊfeɪdʒ/），也被非正式地称为噬菌体（/ˈfeɪdʒ/），是一种感染细菌并在细菌内复制的病毒。该术语源自古希腊语 φαγεῖν（噬菌体）“吞噬”和细菌。噬菌体由封装 DNA 或 RNA 基因组的蛋白质组成，可能具有简单或复杂的结构。它们的基因组可能编码少则四个基因（例如 MS2），多则编码数百个基因。将噬菌体的基因组注入细菌的细胞质后，噬菌体在细菌内复制。噬菌体是生物圈中最常见和最多样化的实体之一。噬菌体是无处不在的病毒，只要有细菌存在，就会发现噬菌体。据估计，地球上有超过 10 种噬菌体，比地球上所有生物体（包括细菌）的总和还多。
A bacteriophage (/bækˈtɪrioʊfeɪdʒ/), also known informally as a phage (/ˈfeɪdʒ/), is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria. The term is derived from Ancient Greek φαγεῖν (phagein) 'to devour' and bacteria. Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have structures that are either simple or elaborate. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes (e.g. MS2) and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere. Bacteriophages are ubiquitous viruses, found wherever bacteria exist. It is estimated there are more than 10 bacteriophages on the planet, more than every living organism on Earth, including bacteria, combined.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 质粒是细胞内的一种小的染色体外 DNA 分子，与染色体 DNA 物理分离，可以独立复制。它们最常见于细菌和古细菌中，以小圆形双链 DNA 分子的形式存在。然而，质粒有时也存在于真核生物中。质粒通常携带有用的基因，例如涉及抗生素抗性、毒力、次级代谢和生物修复的基因。虽然染色体很大并且包含正常条件下生存的所有必需遗传信息，但质粒通常非常小并且包含特殊情况下的额外基因。人工质粒广泛用作分子克隆中的载体，用于驱动重组 DNA 序列在宿主生物体内的复制。在实验室中，可以通过转化将质粒引入细胞中。
A plasmid is a small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. They are most commonly found as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules in bacteria and archaea; however plasmids are sometimes present in eukaryotic organisms as well. Plasmids often carry useful genes, such as those involved in antibiotic resistance, virulence, secondary metabolism and bioremediation. While chromosomes are large and contain all the essential genetic information for living under normal conditions, plasmids are usually very small and contain additional genes for special circumstances. Artificial plasmids are widely used as vectors in molecular cloning, serving to drive the replication of recombinant DNA sequences within host organisms. In the laboratory, plasmids may be introduced into a cell via transformation.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 细胞壁是围绕某些细胞类型的结构层，位于细胞膜外。它可以是坚韧的、灵活的，有时甚至是僵化的。主要为细胞提供结构支撑、形状、保护，并作为选择性屏障发挥作用。细胞壁的另一个重要作用是帮助细胞承受渗透压和机械应力。除软体细菌外，大多数原核生物都具有细胞壁。在真核生物中，细胞壁普遍存在于真菌、藻类和植物中，但在动物和许多其他类群中不存在。细胞壁的组成因分类群、物种、细胞类型和细胞周期而异。在陆地植物中，初生细胞壁包含多糖，如纤维素、半纤维素和果胶。通常，其他聚合物如木质素、木栓质或角质固定在或嵌入植物细胞壁中。
A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds some cell types, found immediately outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier. Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand osmotic pressure and mechanical stress. Cell walls are found in most prokaryotes, with the exception of mollicute bacteria. Among the eukaryotes, cells walls are prevalent in fungi, algae and plants but absent from animals and many other taxa. The composition of cell walls varies across taxonomic groups, species, cell type, and the cell cycle. In land plants, the primary cell wall comprises polysaccharides like cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin. Often, other polymers such as lignin, suberin or cutin are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 肽聚糖、胞壁蛋白或粘肽是一种独特的大分子，一种多糖，由糖和氨基酸组成，形成围绕细菌细胞质膜的网状层（球囊）。糖成分由 β-(1,4) 连接的 N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖 (NAG) 和 N-乙酰胞壁酸 (NAM) 的交替残基组成。 N-乙酰胞壁酸上附着有一条由三到五个氨基酸组成的寡肽链。肽链可以与另一条链的肽链交联，形成 3D 网状层。肽聚糖在细菌细胞壁中发挥结构作用，提供结构强度，并抵消细胞质的渗透压。
Peptidoglycan, murein or mucopeptide is a unique large macromolecule, a polysaccharide, consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer (sacculus) that surrounds the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. The sugar component consists of alternating residues of β-(1,4) linked N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM). Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is an oligopeptide chain made of three to five amino acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another strand forming the 3D mesh-like layer. Peptidoglycan serves a structural role in the bacterial cell wall, giving structural strength, as well as counteracting the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 脂多糖（LPS），现在更常被称为内毒素，是革兰氏阴性菌细胞膜最外膜成分的统称，例如具有共同结构的大肠杆菌和沙门氏菌。脂多糖是大分子，由三部分组成：称为 O 抗原的外核多糖、内核寡糖和脂质 A（毒性主要源自脂质 A），全部通过共价键连接。在当前的术语中，术语“内毒素”经常与“LPS”同义使用，尽管有一些内毒素（最初意义上的细菌细胞内的毒素，当细胞解体时释放）与LPS无关，例如苏云金芽孢杆菌产生的所谓的δ内毒素蛋白。
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), now more commonly known as endotoxin, is a collective term for components of the outermost membrane of the cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli and Salmonella with a common structural architecture. Lipopolysaccharides are large molecules consisting of three parts: an outer core polysaccharide termed the O-antigen, an inner core oligosaccharide and lipid A (from which toxicity is largely derived), all covalently linked. In current terminology, the term endotoxin is often used synonymously with LPS, although there are a few endotoxins (in the original sense of toxins that are inside the bacterial cell that are released when the cell disintegrates) that are not related to LPS, such as the so-called delta endotoxin proteins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 鞭毛（/fləˈdʒɛləm/；复数：flagella）（拉丁语为“鞭子”或“鞭子”）是一种毛发状附属物，从某些植物和动物精子细胞、真菌孢子（游动孢子）和多种微生物中伸出，提供运动能力。许多具有鞭毛的原生生物被称为鞭毛虫。在细菌、古细菌和真核生物的三个领域中，鞭毛具有不同的结构、蛋白质组成和推进机制，但具有相同的提供运动的功能。拉丁词flagellum的意思是“鞭子”，用来形容它像鞭子一样的游泳运动。细菌和古细菌（原核生物）的鞭毛是类似转子的结构，通过旋转推动生物体。虽然与细菌鞭毛非常相似，但古细菌中的鞭毛被称为古细菌，以表明其与细菌鞭毛的区别。
A flagellum (/fləˈdʒɛləm/; pl.: flagella) (Latin for 'whip' or 'scourge') is a hair-like appendage that protrudes from certain plant and animal sperm cells, from fungal spores (zoospores), and from a wide range of microorganisms to provide motility. Many protists with flagella are known as flagellates. Across the three domains of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota, the flagellum has a different structure, protein composition, and mechanism of propulsion but shares the same function of providing motility. The Latin word flagellum means "whip" to describe its lash-like swimming motion. The flagella of bacteria and archaea, prokaryotes, are rotor-like structures that propel the organism via roatation. While very similar to bacterial flagella, the flagellum in archaea is called the archaellum to note its difference from the bacterial flagellum.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 菌毛（拉丁语“头发”的意思；复数：pili）是在许多细菌和古细菌中发现的一种类似毛发的细胞表面附属物。菌毛和菌毛（拉丁语“边缘”的意思；复数：菌毛）这两个术语可以互换使用，尽管一些研究人员保留术语“菌毛”来表示细菌结合所需的附属物。所有接合菌毛主要由菌毛蛋白（低聚纤维蛋白）组成。细菌和古细菌表面可以存在数十种这样的结构。一些噬菌体（细菌病毒）在繁殖周期开始时附着在细菌菌毛上的受体上。菌毛具有抗原性。它们也很脆弱，并且不断被替换，有时具有不同成分的菌毛，导致抗原性改变。对旧菌毛结构的特定宿主反应对新结构无效。
A pilus (Latin for 'hair'; pl.: pili) is a hair-like cell-surface appendage found on many bacteria and archaea. The terms pilus and fimbria (Latin for 'fringe'; plural: fimbriae) can be used interchangeably, although some researchers reserve the term pilus for the appendage required for bacterial conjugation. All conjugative pili are primarily composed of pilin – fibrous proteins, which are oligomeric. Dozens of these structures can exist on the bacterial and archaeal surface. Some bacteriophages (bacterial viruses) attach to receptors on bacterial pili at the start of their reproductive cycle. Pili are antigenic. They are also fragile and constantly replaced, sometimes with pili of different composition, resulting in altered antigenicity. Specific host responses to old pili structures are not effective on the new structure.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 微生物的聚集体，其中细胞经常嵌入自产的胞外聚合物 (EPS) 基质中，相互粘附和/或粘附到表面。生物膜是微生物的互养群落，其中细胞彼此粘附，并且通常也粘附在表面上。这些贴壁细胞嵌入由它们产生的细胞外聚合物 (EPS) 组成的粘稠细胞外基质中，这些物质通常是细胞外多糖、蛋白质、脂质和 DNA 的聚合物组合。由于它们具有三维结构并代表微生物的群落生活方式，因此它们被比喻为“微生物的城市”。
Aggregate of microorganisms in which cells that are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) adhere to each other and/or to a surface. A biofilm is a syntrophic community of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often also to a surface. These adherent cells become embedded within a slimy extracellular matrix composed of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) produced by them, which are typically a polymeric combination of extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and DNA. Because they have a three-dimensional structure and represent a community lifestyle for microorganisms, they have been metaphorically described as "cities for microbes".
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生物学中，群体感应或群体信号（QS）是细胞间通讯的过程，它允许细菌通过基因调节来检测和响应细胞群体密度，通常作为适应环境劣势的一种手段。群体感应是一种细胞信号传导，更具体地可以被认为是一种旁分泌信号传导。然而，它也包含自分泌信号传导的特征：细胞产生自诱导剂分子和自诱导剂受体。举一个例子，群体感应使细菌能够将特定基因的表达限制在高细胞密度，在高细胞密度下所产生的表型将是最有益的，特别是对于在低细胞密度下无效的表型，因此表达的能量成本太高。
In biology, quorum sensing or quorum signaling (QS) is the process of cell-to-cell communication that allows bacteria to detect and respond to cell population density by gene regulation, typically as a means of acclimating to environmental disadvantages. Quorum sensing is a type of cellular signaling, and can be more specifically considered a type of paracrine signaling. However, it also contains traits of autocrine signaling: a cell produces both an autoinducer molecule and the receptor for the autoinducer. As one example, quorum sensing enables bacteria to restrict the expression of specific genes to the high cell densities at which the resulting phenotypes will be most beneficial, especially for phenotypes that would be ineffective at low cell densities and therefore too energetically costly to express.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生物学中，孢子是有性（在真菌中）或无性繁殖的单位，可以适应传播和生存，通常可以在不利条件下长时间生存。孢子是许多植物、藻类、真菌和原生动物生命周期的一部分。人们认为它们早在奥陶纪中晚期就出现了，是早期陆地植物的适应体。细菌孢子不是性周期的一部分，而是用于在不利条件下生存的抵抗结构。粘虫孢子将变形虫传染性细菌（“变形虫”）释放到宿主体内进行寄生感染，但也通过疟原虫内两个细胞核的配对在宿主体内繁殖，疟原虫是由变形虫发育而来的。在植物中，孢子通常是单倍体和单细胞，并通过二倍体孢子体的孢子囊中的减数分裂产生。
In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa. They were thought to have appeared as early as the mid-late Ordovician period as an adaptation of early land plants. Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions. Myxozoan spores release amoeboid infectious germs ("amoebulae") into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula. In plants, spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporangium of a diploid sporophyte.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 内生孢子是由芽孢杆菌门中的一些细菌产生的休眠的、坚韧的和非繁殖的结构。 “内生孢子”这个名字暗示着孢子或种子状的形式（endo 的意思是“内部”），但它不是真正的孢子（即不是后代）。它是一种精简的休眠形式，细菌可以将自身缩小到这种形式。内生孢子的形成通常是由于缺乏营养而引发的，并且通常发生在革兰氏阳性细菌中。在内生孢子形成过程中，细菌在其细胞壁内分裂，然后一侧吞噬另一侧。内生孢子使细菌能够休眠很长一段时间，甚至几个世纪。有许多报道称孢子能存活一万年以上，甚至有人声称数百万年前的孢子能复活。有一份报告称盐晶体中存在大约 2500 万年前的海藻芽孢杆菌 (Bacillus marismortui) 活孢子。
An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Bacillota. The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form (endo means 'within'), but it is not a true spore (i.e., not an offspring). It is a stripped-down, dormant form to which the bacterium can reduce itself. Endospore formation is usually triggered by a lack of nutrients, and usually occurs in Gram-positive bacteria. In endospore formation, the bacterium divides within its cell wall, and one side then engulfs the other. Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods, even centuries. There are many reports of spores remaining viable over 10,000 years, and revival of spores millions of years old has been claimed. There is one report of viable spores of Bacillus marismortui in salt crystals approximately 25 million years old.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 革兰氏染色（革兰氏染色或革兰氏法）是一种用于将细菌种类分为两大类的染色方法：革兰氏阳性菌和革兰氏阴性菌。它还可用于诊断真菌感染。该名称源自丹麦细菌学家 Hans Christian Gram，他于 1884 年开发了这项技术。革兰氏染色通过细菌细胞壁的化学和物理特性来区分细菌。革兰氏阳性细胞的细胞壁中有一层厚厚的肽聚糖，保留了主要染色剂结晶紫。革兰氏阴性细胞具有较薄的肽聚糖层，可在添加乙醇时将结晶紫洗掉。它们被复染剂（通常是番红或品红）染成粉红色或红色。
Gram stain (Gram staining or Gram's method) is a method of staining used to classify bacterial species into two large groups: gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. It may also be used to diagnose a fungal infection. The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique in 1884. Gram staining differentiates bacteria by the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls. Gram-positive cells have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in the cell wall that retains the primary stain, crystal violet. Gram-negative cells have a thinner peptidoglycan layer that allows the crystal violet to wash out on addition of ethanol. They are stained pink or red by the counterstain, commonly safranin or fuchsine.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生长培养基或培养基是固体、液体或半固体，旨在通过细胞增殖过程支持微生物或细胞群体的生长或小植物（如苔藓立碗藓）的生长。不同类型的培养基用于培养不同类型的细胞。两种主要类型的生长培养基是用于细胞培养的培养基，其使用源自植物或动物的特定细胞类型，以及用于微生物培养的培养基，其用于生长微生物，例如细菌或真菌。最常见的微生物生长培养基是营养肉汤和琼脂平板；微生物和细胞培养物的生长有时需要专门的培养基。一些生物体（称为挑剔生物体）由于复杂的营养需求而需要特殊的环境。
A growth medium or culture medium is a solid, liquid, or semi-solid designed to support the growth of a population of microorganisms or cells via the process of cell proliferation or small plants like the moss Physcomitrella patens. Different types of media are used for growing different types of cells. The two major types of growth media are those used for cell culture, which use specific cell types derived from plants or animals, and those used for microbiological culture, which are used for growing microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi. The most common growth media for microorganisms are nutrient broths and agar plates; specialized media are sometimes required for microorganism and cell culture growth. Some organisms, termed fastidious organisms, require specialized environments due to complex nutritional requirements.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 细菌生长是细菌增殖成两个子细胞，这一过程称为二元裂变。如果没有发生突变事件，所产生的子细胞与原始细胞在遗传上是相同的。因此，会发生细菌生长。分裂产生的两个子细胞不一定都能存活。然而，如果存活数量超过平均数，细菌种群就会呈指数增长。分批培养中指数细菌生长曲线的测量传统上是所有微生物学家培训的一部分；基本手段需要通过直接和个体（显微镜、流式细胞术）、直接和批量（生物量）、间接和个体（菌落计数）或间接和批量（最可能数、浊度、养分吸收）方法进行细菌计数（细胞计数）。模型使理论与测量相一致。
Bacterial growth is proliferation of bacterium into two daughter cells, in a process called binary fission. Providing no mutation event occurs, the resulting daughter cells are genetically identical to the original cell. Hence, bacterial growth occurs. Both daughter cells from the division do not necessarily survive. However, if the surviving number exceeds unity on average, the bacterial population undergoes exponential growth. The measurement of an exponential bacterial growth curve in batch culture was traditionally a part of the training of all microbiologists; the basic means requires bacterial enumeration (cell counting) by direct and individual (microscopic, flow cytometry), direct and bulk (biomass), indirect and individual (colony counting), or indirect and bulk (most probable number, turbidity, nutrient uptake) methods. Models reconcile theory with the measurements.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 倍增时间是人口规模/价值翻倍所需的时间。它适用于人口增长、通货膨胀、资源开采、商品消费、复利、恶性肿瘤的数量以及许多其他随着时间的推移而增长的事物。当相对增长率（不是绝对增长率）恒定时，数量呈指数增长，并且具有恒定的倍增时间或周期，可以直接根据增长率计算。这个时间可以通过 2 的自然对数除以增长指数来计算，或者通过用 70 除以百分比增长率来近似计算（更粗略但更全面的是除 72；有关该公式的详细信息和推导，请参阅 72 的规则）。
The doubling time is the time it takes for a population to double in size/value. It is applied to population growth, inflation, resource extraction, consumption of goods, compound interest, the volume of malignant tumours, and many other things that tend to grow over time. When the relative growth rate (not the absolute growth rate) is constant, the quantity undergoes exponential growth and has a constant doubling time or period, which can be calculated directly from the growth rate. This time can be calculated by dividing the natural logarithm of 2 by the exponent of growth, or approximated by dividing 70 by the percentage growth rate (more roughly but roundly, dividing 72; see the rule of 72 for details and derivations of this formula).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 恒化器（化学环境是静态的）是一种生物反应器，不断向其中添加新鲜培养基，同时以相同的速率不断去除含有剩余营养物质、代谢终产物和微生物的培养液，以保持培养物体积恒定。通过改变向生物反应器中添加培养基的速率，可以容易地将微生物的比生长速率控制在限度内。恒化器最重要的特点之一是微生物可以在恒定的环境条件下以生理稳态生长。在这种稳定状态下，生长以恒定的比生长速率发生，并且所有培养参数保持恒定（培养体积、溶解氧浓度、营养物和产物浓度、pH、细胞密度等）。此外，环境条件可以由实验者控制。
A chemostat (from chemical environment is static) is a bioreactor to which fresh medium is continuously added, while culture liquid containing left over nutrients, metabolic end products and microorganisms is continuously removed at the same rate to keep the culture volume constant. By changing the rate with which medium is added to the bioreactor the specific growth rate of the microorganism can be easily controlled within limits. One of the most important features of chemostats is that microorganisms can be grown in a physiological steady state under constant environmental conditions. In this steady state, growth occurs at a constant specific growth rate and all culture parameters remain constant (culture volume, dissolved oxygen concentration, nutrient and product concentrations, pH, cell density, etc.). In addition, environmental conditions can be controlled by the experimenter.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 发酵是一种无氧代谢，利用反应物的氧化还原电位来制造三磷酸腺苷 (ATP) 和有机最终产品。有机分子，如葡萄糖或其他糖类，被分解代谢，它们的电子转移到其他有机分子（辅因子、辅酶等）。无氧糖酵解是一个相关术语，用于描述当有氧呼吸因氧气供应不足或无氧条件而无法跟上 ATP 需求时，生物体（通常是多细胞生物体，如动物）发生发酵。发酵在人类社会的多个领域都很重要。人类利用发酵来生产和保存食物已有 13,000 年的历史。它具有健康益处、独特的风味特征以及使产品具有更好的质感。
Fermentation is a type of anaerobic metabolism that harnesses the redox potential of the reactants to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and organic end products. Organic molecules, such as glucose or other sugars, are catabolized and their electrons are transferred to other organic molecules (cofactors, coenzymes, etc.). Anaerobic glycolysis is a related term used to describe the occurrence of fermentation in organisms (usually multicellular organisms such as animals) when aerobic respiration cannot keep up with the ATP demand, due to insufficient oxygen supply or anaerobic conditions. Fermentation is important in several areas of human society. Humans have used fermentation in the production and preservation of food for 13,000 years. It has been associated with health benefits, unique flavor profiles, and making products have better texture.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 高压釜是一种用于执行需要相对于环境压力和温度升高的温度和压力的工业和科学过程的机器。高压灭菌器存在于许多医疗机构、实验室和其他需要确保物体无菌的地方。高压灭菌器是由查尔斯·钱伯兰 (Charles Chamberland) 于 1879 年发明的，而蒸汽蒸煮器的前身是由丹尼斯·帕潘 (Denis Papin) 在 1679 年创建的。这个名称源自希腊语 auto-，意思是“自我”，拉丁语 clavis 意思是“钥匙”，因此是一种自锁装置。所有高压灭菌器均按照与厨房压力锅相同的基本原理运行。最简单的高压灭菌器（所谓的“炉灶式高压灭菌器”）在很大程度上与食品制备中使用的高压锅没有什么区别。高压灭菌器最常在外科手术前用于对医疗器械和用品进行消毒。
An autoclave is a machine used to carry out industrial and scientific processes requiring elevated temperature and pressure in relation to ambient pressure and temperature. Autoclaves are found in many medical settings, laboratories, and other places that need to ensure the sterility of an object. The autoclave was invented by Charles Chamberland in 1879, although a precursor known as the steam digester was created by Denis Papin in 1679. The name comes from Greek auto-, meaning "self", and Latin clavis meaning "key", thus a self-locking device. All autoclaves operate according to the same fundamental principles as a kitchen pressure cooker. The simplest autoclaves (so-called "stovetop autoclaves") are largely indistinguishable from pressure cookers used in food preparation. Autoclaves are most commonly used before surgical procedures to sterilize medical instruments and supplies.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 抗生素是一种对细菌具有活性的抗菌物质。它是对抗细菌感染的最重要的抗菌剂，抗生素药物广泛用于治疗和预防此类感染。它们可以杀死或抑制细菌的生长。有限数量的抗生素也具有抗原虫活性，但抗生素对病毒或真菌无效。有时，抗生素一词的字面意思是“反对生命”，源自希腊词根ἀντι anti，“对抗”和βίος bios，“生命”，广泛用于指用于对抗微生物的任何物质，但在正常医疗用途中，抗生素（例如青霉素）是自然产生的物质（由一种微生物与另一种微生物对抗），而非抗生素抗菌药物（例如磺胺类药物和防腐剂）是完全合成的。
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance which is active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity, but antibiotics are not effective against viruses or fungi. Sometimes, the term antibiotic—literally "opposing life", from the Greek roots ἀντι anti, "against" and βίος bios, "life"—is broadly used to refer to any substance used against microbes, but in normal medical usage antibiotics (such as penicillin) are those produced naturally (by one microorganism fighting another), whereas non-antibiotic antibacterials (such as sulfonamides and antiseptics) are fully synthetic.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在遗传学中，突变率是指单个基因、核苷酸序列或生物体随着时间的推移出现新突变的频率。突变率不是恒定的，并且不限于单一类型的突变；有许多不同类型的突变。突变率是针对特定类别的突变给出的。点突变是单个碱基的改变。错义、无义和同义取代突变都是点突变的例子。这些类型的替换率可以进一步细分为突变谱，它描述了遗传背景对突变率的影响。这些速率中的每一个都有几个自然的时间单位，速率被表征为每次细胞分裂每个碱基对的突变、每代每个基因或每代基因组的突变。
In genetics, the mutation rate is the frequency of new mutations in a single gene, nucleotide sequence, or organism over time. Mutation rates are not constant and are not limited to a single type of mutation; there are many different types of mutations. Mutation rates are given for specific classes of mutations. A point mutation is a change to a single base. Missense, nonsense, and synonymous substitution mutations are all examples of point mutations. The rate of these types of substitutions can be further subdivided into a mutation spectrum, which describes the influence of the genetic context on the mutation rate. There are several natural units of time for each of these rates, with rates being characterized either as mutations per base pair per cell division, per gene per generation, or genome per generation.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 水平基因转移 (HGT) 或横向基因转移 (LGT) 是生物体之间遗传物质的移动，而不是通过 DNA 从亲本到后代（繁殖）的（“垂直”）传递。 HGT 是许多生物体进化的重要因素。 HGT 正在影响对高阶进化的科学理解，同时更显着地改变对细菌进化的看法。水平基因转移是细菌中抗生素耐药性传播的主要机制，在能够降解新型化合物（例如人造农药）的细菌进化以及毒力的进化、维持和传播中发挥着重要作用。它通常涉及温和的噬菌体和质粒。
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer (LGT) is the movement of genetic material between organisms other than by the ("vertical") transmission of DNA from parent to offspring (reproduction). HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms. HGT is influencing scientific understanding of higher-order evolution while more significantly shifting perspectives on bacterial evolution. Horizontal gene transfer is the primary mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and plays an important role in the evolution of bacteria that can degrade novel compounds such as human-created pesticides and in the evolution, maintenance, and transmission of virulence. It often involves temperate bacteriophages and plasmids.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在分子生物学中，扩增子是一段 DNA，是扩增或复制事件的来源和/或产物。它可以使用各种方法人工形成，包括聚合酶链式反应（PCR）或连接酶链式反应（LCR），或通过基因复制自然形成。在本文中，扩增是指基因片段或靶序列的一个或多个拷贝的产生，特别是扩增子。由于扩增子指的是扩增反应的产物，因此它可以与常见的实验室术语（例如“PCR 产物”）互换使用。人工扩增用于研究、法医学和医学，其目的包括检测和量化传染源、识别人类遗骸以及从人类头发中提取基因型。自然基因复制在进化中起着重要作用。
In molecular biology, an amplicon is a piece of DNA that is the source and/or product of amplification or replication events. It can be formed artificially, using various methods including polymerase chain reactions (PCR) or ligase chain reactions (LCR), or naturally through gene duplication. In this context, amplification refers to the production of one or more copies of a genetic fragment or target sequence, specifically the amplicon. As it refers to the product of an amplification reaction, amplicon is used interchangeably with common laboratory terms, such as "PCR product." Artificial amplification is used in research, forensics, and medicine for purposes that include detection and quantification of infectious agents, identification of human remains, and extracting genotypes from human hair. Natural gene duplication plays a major role in evolution.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 16S 核糖体 RNA（或 16S rRNA）是原核核糖体 (SSU rRNA) 30S 亚基的 RNA 成分。它与 Shine-Dalgarno 序列结合并提供大部分 SSU 结构。编码它的基因被称为 16S rRNA 基因，由于该基因区域的进化速度缓慢，因此可用于重建系统发育。 Carl Woese 和 George E. Fox 是 1977 年率先在系统发育学中使用 16S rRNA 的两位人士。单个细菌中可以存在 16S rRNA 基因的多个序列。描述符 16S 指的是这些核糖体亚基的大小，通过样品离心时它们沉积的速度间接反映。因此 16S 意味着 16 个 Svedberg 单位。
16S ribosomal RNA (or 16S rRNA) is the RNA component of the 30S subunit of a prokaryotic ribosome (SSU rRNA). It binds to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence and provides most of the SSU structure. The genes coding for it are referred to as 16S rRNA genes and are used in reconstructing phylogenies, due to the slow rates of evolution of this region of the gene. Carl Woese and George E. Fox were two of the people who pioneered the use of 16S rRNA in phylogenetics in 1977. Multiple sequences of the 16S rRNA gene can exist within a single bacterium. The descriptor 16S refers to the size of these ribosomal subunits as reflected indirectly by the speed at which they sediment when samples are centrifuged. Thus 16S means 16 Svedberg units.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 内转录间隔区 (ITS) 是位于染色体中小亚基核糖体 RNA (rRNA) 和大亚基 rRNA 基因或多顺反子 rRNA 前体转录物中相应转录区域之间的间隔 DNA。在细菌和古细菌中，有一个 ITS，位于 16S 和 23S rRNA 基因之间。相反，真核生物中有两个 ITS：ITS1 位于 18S 和 5.8S rRNA 基因之间，而 ITS2 位于 5.8S 和 28S（在后康生物中，或在植物中为 25S）rRNA 基因之间。 ITS1 对应于细菌和古细菌中的 ITS，而 ITS2 起源于中断祖先 23S rRNA 基因的插入。在细菌和古细菌中，ITS 存在一到多个拷贝，侧翼 16S 和 23S 基因也是如此。当存在多个副本时，这些副本不会彼此相邻。相反，它们出现在环状染色体的离散位置。
Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) is the spacer DNA situated between the small-subunit ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and large-subunit rRNA genes in the chromosome or the corresponding transcribed region in the polycistronic rRNA precursor transcript. In bacteria and archaea, there is a single ITS, located between the 16S and 23S rRNA genes. Conversely, there are two ITSs in eukaryotes: ITS1 is located between 18S and 5.8S rRNA genes, while ITS2 is between 5.8S and 28S (in opisthokonts, or 25S in plants) rRNA genes. ITS1 corresponds to the ITS in bacteria and archaea, while ITS2 originated as an insertion that interrupted the ancestral 23S rRNA gene. In bacteria and archaea, the ITS occurs in one to several copies, as do the flanking 16S and 23S genes. When there are multiple copies, these do not occur adjacent to one another. Rather, they occur in discrete locations in the circular chromosome.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 稀化是指物品密度的降低，与压缩相反。与可以以波（例如声波）形式传播的压缩波一样，稀疏波也存在于自然界中。常见的稀疏波是冲击波后相对压力较低的区域（见图）。稀疏波随着时间的推移而扩展（就像海浪到达海滩时扩散一样）；在大多数情况下，稀疏波在整个波的运动过程中始终保持相同的整体轮廓（“形状”）：这是一种自相似的扩展。波的每个部分在局部介质中以局部声速传播。这种膨胀行为与压力增加形成鲜明对比，压力增加随着时间的推移而变窄，直到陡峭地形成冲击波。稀薄的一个自然例子发生在地球大气层中。
Rarefaction is the reduction of an item's density, the opposite of compression. Like compression, which can travel in waves (sound waves, for instance), rarefaction waves also exist in nature. A common rarefaction wave is the area of low relative pressure following a shock wave (see picture). Rarefaction waves expand with time (much like sea waves spread out as they reach a beach); in most cases rarefaction waves keep the same overall profile ('shape') at all times throughout the wave's movement: it is a self-similar expansion. Each part of the wave travels at the local speed of sound, in the local medium. This expansion behaviour contrasts with that of pressure increases, which gets narrower with time until they steepen into shock waves. A natural example of rarefaction occurs in the layers of Earth's atmosphere.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ UniFrac 是独特分数度量的缩写版本，是一种用于比较生物群落的距离度量。它与 Bray-Curtis 相异性等相异性度量的不同之处在于，它通过在计算中纳入观察到的生物体之间的系统发育距离来纳入有关群落成员相对相关性的信息。 UniFrac 的加权（定量）和未加权（定性）变体都广泛用于微生物生态学，其中前者考虑了观察到的生物体的丰度，而后者仅考虑它们的存在或不存在。该方法是由凯瑟琳·洛祖彭 (Catherine Lozupone) 于 2005 年与科罗拉多大学博尔德分校的罗布·奈特 (Rob Knight) 合作时设计的。计算样本对之间的距离（每个样本代表一个生物群落）。
UniFrac, a shortened version of unique fraction metric, is a distance metric used for comparing biological communities. It differs from dissimilarity measures such as Bray-Curtis dissimilarity in that it incorporates information on the relative relatedness of community members by incorporating phylogenetic distances between observed organisms in the computation. Both weighted (quantitative) and unweighted (qualitative) variants of UniFrac are widely used in microbial ecology, where the former accounts for abundance of observed organisms, while the latter only considers their presence or absence. The method was devised by Catherine Lozupone, when she was working with Rob Knight of the University of Colorado at Boulder in 2005. The distance is calculated between pairs of samples (each sample represents an organismal community).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生物化学中，代谢途径是细胞内发生的一系列相互关联的化学反应。酶促反应的反应物、产物和中间体被称为代谢物，它们通过酶催化的一系列化学反应而被修饰。在代谢途径的大多数情况下，一种酶的产物充当下一种酶的底物。然而，副产物被认为是废物并从细胞中去除。不同的代谢途径在真核细胞内的位置发挥作用，以及该途径在细胞给定区室中的重要性。例如，电子传递链和氧化磷酸化都发生在线粒体膜中。相反，糖酵解、磷酸戊糖途径和脂肪酸生物合成都发生在细胞的细胞质中。
In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a linked series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. The reactants, products, and intermediates of an enzymatic reaction are known as metabolites, which are modified by a sequence of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes. In most cases of a metabolic pathway, the product of one enzyme acts as the substrate for the next. However, side products are considered waste and removed from the cell. Different metabolic pathways function in the position within a eukaryotic cell and the significance of the pathway in the given compartment of the cell. For instance, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation all take place in the mitochondrial membrane. In contrast, glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, and fatty acid biosynthesis all occur in the cytosol of a cell.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 固氮是一种化学过程，通过该过程，丰富但相对惰性的分子二氮 (N2) 转化为生物可利用的氮化合物，例如氨 (NH3) 和硝酸盐 (NO3)。它在生物和非生物方面都发生，后者要么通过天气现象（例如闪电）自然发生，要么通过化学工业人为发生。生物固氮或固氮是由蓝藻和根瘤菌等微生物产生的固氮酶催化的。这些酶复合物由 Nif 基因（或 Nif 同系物）编码，含有铁，通常含有第二种金属（通常是钼，但有时是钒）。一些固氮细菌与植物有共生关系，特别是豆科植物、苔藓和水生蕨类植物，如满江红。
Nitrogen fixation is a chemical process by which the abundant but relatively inert molecular dinitrogen (N2) is converted into bioavailable nitrogen compounds such as ammonia (NH3) and nitrates (NO3). It occurs both biologically and abiologically, the latter either naturally through weather phenomena (e.g. lightning) or artificially by chemical industries. Biological nitrogen fixation or diazotrophy is catalyzed by enzymes called nitrogenases, produced by microorganisms such as cyanobacteria and rhizobia. These enzyme complexes are encoded by the Nif genes (or Nif homologs) and contain iron, often with a second metal (usually molybdenum, but sometimes vanadium). Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria have symbiotic relationships with plants, especially legumes, mosses, and aquatic ferns such as Azolla.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
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