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Mechanical Engineering3D折叠进化在地质学中，3D 褶皱演化是对褶皱随时间变化的完整三维结构的研究。褶皱是一种常见的三维地质结构，与应力下的应变变形相关。褶皱在三个维度上的演化大致可分为两个阶段，即褶皱生长和褶皱连锁。进化取决于折叠运动学、折叠机制，以及折叠背后的历史报告和了解折叠年龄的关系。重建褶皱演化进程的方法有多种，特别是利用沉积证据、地貌证据和平衡恢复。
In geology, 3D fold evolution is the study of the full three dimensional structure of a fold as it changes in time. A fold is a common three-dimensional geological structure that is associated with strain deformation under stress. Fold evolution in three dimensions can be broadly divided into two stages, namely fold growth and fold linkage. The evolution depends on fold kinematics, Fold mechanism, as well as a reporting of the history behind folds and relationships by which fold age is understood. There are several ways to reconstruct the evolution progress of folds, notably by using depositional evidence, geomorphological evidence and balanced restoration.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在地质学和材料科学中，变形机制是在微观尺度上发生的导致变形的过程：材料内部结构、形状和体积的变化。该过程涉及平面不连续性和/或原子从其在晶格结构内的原始位置的位移。这些微小的变化保存在岩石、金属和塑料等材料的各种微观结构中，可以使用光学或数字显微镜进行深入研究。
In geology and materials science, a deformation mechanism is a process occurring at a microscopic scale that is responsible for deformation: changes in a material's internal structure, shape and volume. The process involves planar discontinuity and/or displacement of atoms from their original position within a crystal lattice structure. These small changes are preserved in various microstructures of materials such as rocks, metals and plastics, and can be studied in depth using optical or digital microscopy.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 褶皱是层状岩石受力后形成的波状弯曲。绝大多数的层状岩石是由堆积在盆地、海岸的平坦水平成层的沉积物形成，如隆升出露地面，形成水平岩层。
In structural geology, a fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, that are bent or curved ("folded") during permanent deformation. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur as single isolated folds or in periodic sets (known as fold trains). Synsedimentary folds are those formed during sedimentary deposition. Folds form under varied conditions of stress, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones.
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View content license ↗ 单斜构造（英语：Monocline）是岩层中的一种阶梯状褶皱，由在水平或倾角较缓地层序列内的倾角较陡区域组成。
A monocline (or, rarely, a monoform) is a step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or gently dipping sequence.
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View content license ↗ 古应力是地质学（特别是构造地质学和构造学领域）中使用的术语，表示在地质过去影响岩层的机械应力。在实践中，古应力张量可以基于某些地质结构（例如断层）的测量来量化，其特定的几何形状和空间组织在理论上与张量的参数相关（参见古应力反演）。后者是通过现场（或可能在实验室的岩石样本上）测量的结构反演来量化的。古应力是地质学中机械应力的一个子集。地壳内应力场的变化会导致各种机械响应： 微观：晶体变形，包括孪生、压溶微裂缝、排列流体包裹体。
Paleostress is a term used in geology (specifically in the fields of structural geology and tectonics) to indicate mechanical stress that has affected rock formations in the geological past. In practice, a paleostress tensor may be quantified based on the measurement of certain geological structures (e.g. faults), whose specific geometries and spatial organization are theoretically linked to the parameters of the tensor (see paleostress inversion). The latter are quantified through inversion of the structures measured in the field (or potentially on rock samples in the lab). Paleostress is a subset of mechanical stress within geology. Variations in stress fields within the Earth's crust can result in a variety of mechanical responses: Microscopic: Crystal deformation, including twinning, Pressure solution Microfractures, Aligned fluid inclusions.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 古应力反演是指根据岩石中发现的证据确定古应力历史，其原理是过去的构造应力应该在岩石中留下痕迹。多年来的现场研究已经发现了这种关系：变形结构的定性和定量分析有助于理解连续构造事件控制的古应力场的分布和转变。变形范围从微观到区域尺度，从脆性到延性行为，取决于岩石的流变性、应力的方向和大小等。因此，露头以及薄片的详细观察对于重建古应力轨迹非常重要。反演需要假设才能简化复杂的地质过程。
Paleostress inversion refers to the determination of paleostress history from evidence found in rocks, based on the principle that past tectonic stress should have left traces in the rocks. Such relationships have been discovered from field studies for years: qualitative and quantitative analyses of deformation structures are useful for understanding the distribution and transformation of paleostress fields controlled by sequential tectonic events. Deformation ranges from microscopic to regional scale, and from brittle to ductile behaviour, depending on the rheology of the rock, orientation and magnitude of the stress, etc. Therefore, detailed observations in outcrops, as well as in thin sections, are important in reconstructing the paleostress trajectories. Inversions require assumptions in order to simplify the complex geological processes.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 这是用于模拟结构地质学变形过程的不同模拟材料特性的汇编。此类实验通常称为模拟或模拟模型。本页的组织遵循 Reber 等人对构造地质学和构造学中岩石模拟材料的回顾。 2020.
This is a compilation of the properties of different analog materials used to simulate deformational processes in structural geology. Such experiments are often called analog or analogue models. The organization of this page follows the review of rock analog materials in structural geology and tectonics of Reber et al. 2020.
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View content license ↗ 严重塑性变形 (SPD) 是一个通用术语，描述一组金属加工技术，或更一般地说，固态机械工艺，涉及非常大的应变，导致高缺陷密度、“超细”晶粒 (UFG) 尺寸 (d < 1000 nm) 或有时纳米晶 (NC) 结构 (d < 100 nm) 和相变。
Severe plastic deformation (SPD) is a generic term describing a group of metalworking techniques — or more generally, solid-state mechanical processes — that involve very large strains, resulting in a high defect density, "ultrafine" grain (UFG) sizes (d < 1000 nm) or sometimes nanocrystalline (NC) structures (d < 100 nm), and phase transitions.
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View content license ↗ 剪切（英语：shear）是岩石对压缩应力引起的变形的反应，并形成特定的纹理。 剪切可以是均质的或非均质的，并且可分为纯剪切或简单剪切。 在地质科学的剪切研究与构造地质学、岩石微观结构或岩石质地和断层力学的研究有关。 剪切过程发生在脆性、脆韧性和韧性岩石中。 在纯脆性岩石中，压应力导致压裂和简单断层。
In geology, shear is the response of a rock to deformation usually by compressive stress and forms particular textures. Shear can be homogeneous or non-homogeneous, and may be pure shear or simple shear. Study of geological shear is related to the study of structural geology, rock microstructure or rock texture and fault mechanics. The process of shearing occurs within brittle, brittle-ductile, and ductile rocks. Within purely brittle rocks, compressive stress results in fracturing and simple faulting.
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View content license ↗ 机械工程是对可能涉及力和运动的物理机器和机制的研究。它是一个将工程物理和数学原理与材料科学相结合的工程分支，用于设计、分析、制造和维护机械系统。它是最古老、最广泛的工程分支之一。机械工程需要了解机械、动力学、热力学、材料科学、设计、结构分析、电子和电力等核心领域。
Mechanical engineering is the study of physical machines and mechanisms that may involve force and movement. It is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematics principles with materials science, to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches. Mechanical engineering requires an understanding of core areas including mechanics, dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, design, structural analysis, electronics, and electricity.
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View content license ↗ 静力学是经典力学的一个分支，涉及分析作用在物理系统上的力和扭矩，该物理系统没有经历加速度，而是与其环境保持平衡。如果 F {\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}} 是作用在系统上的力的总和，m {\displaystyle m} 是系统的质量，a {\displaystyle {\textbf {a}}} 是系统的加速度，则牛顿第二定律指出 F = m a {\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}=m{\textbf {a}}\,} （粗体字表示矢量，即大小和方向）。
Statics is the branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the analysis of force and torque acting on a physical system that does not experience an acceleration, but rather is in equilibrium with its environment. If F {\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}} is the total of the forces acting on the system, m {\displaystyle m} is the mass of the system and a {\displaystyle {\textbf {a}}} is the acceleration of the system, Newton's second law states that F = m a {\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}=m{\textbf {a}}\,} (the bold font indicates a vector quantity, i.e. one with both magnitude and direction).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 运动学是物理学的一个子领域，也是几何学的一个分支。在物理学中，运动学研究物理对象运动的几何方面，与使其运动的力无关。约束运动（例如链接的机器零件）也被描述为运动学。在几何中，运动学研究几何量（例如相对于参考系的位置、距离和角度测量）的时间依赖性。最常见的是，运动学处理的量是这些量的时间导数以及它们之间的关系。研究运动的对象包括经历刚性运动的欧几里得空间的点和子集。运动学涉及物体位置和速度的规范系统以及这些系统之间的数学转换。
Kinematics is a subfield of physics and a branch of geometry. In physics, kinematics studies the geometrical aspects of motion of physical objects independent of forces that set them in motion. Constrained motion such as linked machine parts are also described as kinematics. In geometry, kinematics studies the time dependence of geometrical quantities such as position, distance and angular measure with respect to a frame of reference. Most frequently, the quantities that kinematics deals with are the time derivatives of these quantities and the relations between them. Objects whose motion is studied include points and subsets of euclidean space that undergo rigid motion. Kinematics is concerned with systems of specification of objects' positions and velocities and mathematical transformations between such systems.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在物理学和工程学中，自由体图（FBD；也称为力图）是一种图形说明，用于可视化给定条件下自由体上所施加的力、力矩以及所产生的反应。它描绘了一个物体或连接的物体，以及作用在物体上的所有施加的力和力矩以及反作用力。该主体可以由多个内部构件（例如桁架）组成，或者是一个紧凑的主体（例如梁）。解决复杂问题可能需要一系列自由体和其他图表。有时，为了以图形方式计算合力，所施加的力被排列为力多边形或力多边形的边缘（参见§力多边形）。
In physics and engineering, a free body diagram (FBD; also called a force diagram) is a graphical illustration used to visualize the applied forces, moments, and resulting reactions on a free body in a given condition. It depicts a body or connected bodies with all the applied forces and moments, and reactions, which act on the body(ies). The body may consist of multiple internal members (such as a truss), or be a compact body (such as a beam). A series of free bodies and other diagrams may be necessary to solve complex problems. Sometimes in order to calculate the resultant force graphically the applied forces are arranged as the edges of a polygon of forces or force polygon (see § Polygon of forces).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在物理学中，经典力学是一种描述力对宏观物体和大块物质运动的影响的理论，不考虑量子效应，通常也不考虑相对论效应。它用于描述物体的运动，例如抛射体和粒子、机械部件、航天器、行星、恒星、星系、可变形固体、流体、大分子和其他物体。经典力学的发展涉及物理学方法和哲学的重大变化。限定词“经典”将这种类型的力学与 20 世纪初物理学革命后开发的新方法区分开来，这些革命揭示了经典力学的局限性。一些现代来源包括经典力学中的相对论力学，以最发达和准确的形式代表主题。
In physics, classical mechanics is a theory that describes the effect of forces on the motion of macroscopic objects and bulk matter, without considering quantum effects, and often without incorporating relativistic effects either. It is used in describing the motion of objects such as projectiles and particles, parts of machinery, spacecraft, planets, stars, galaxies, deformable solids, fluids, macromolecules and other objects. The development of classical mechanics involved substantial change in the methods and philosophy of physics. The qualifier classical distinguishes this type of mechanics from new methods developed after the revolutions in physics of the early 20th century which revealed limitations in classical mechanics. Some modern sources include relativistic mechanics in classical mechanics, as representing the subject matter in its most developed and accurate form.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 极限拉伸强度（也称为 UTS、拉伸强度、TS、极限强度或 F tu {\displaystyle F_{\text{tu}}} 符号）是材料在断裂前被拉伸或拉动时可以承受的最大应力。在脆性材料中，极限抗拉强度接近屈服点，而在延性材料中，极限抗拉强度可能更高。极限拉伸强度通常是通过进行拉伸测试并记录工程应力与应变的关系来确定的。应力-应变曲线的最高点是极限拉伸强度，并具有应力单位。压缩而不是拉伸情况下的等效点称为抗压强度。拉伸强度在延性构件的设计中很少有任何影响，但对于脆性构件却很重要。
Ultimate tensile strength (also called UTS, tensile strength, TS, ultimate strength or F tu {\displaystyle F_{\text{tu}}} in notation) is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In brittle materials, the ultimate tensile strength is close to the yield point, whereas in ductile materials, the ultimate tensile strength can be higher. The ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering stress versus strain. The highest point of the stress–strain curve is the ultimate tensile strength and has units of stress. The equivalent point for the case of compression, instead of tension, is called the compressive strength. Tensile strengths are rarely of any consequence in the design of ductile members, but they are important with brittle members.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在固体力学中，应力集中（也称为应力集中点或应力集中点或缺口敏感度）是物体中应力显着大于周围区域的位置。当结构部件的几何形状或材料不规则导致应力流中断时，就会出现应力集中。这是由孔、凹槽、凹口和圆角等细节产生的。意外损坏（例如刻痕和划痕）也可能导致应力集中。在典型的拉伸载荷下，不连续性的集中程度可以表示为无量纲应力集中因子 K t {\displaystyle K_{t}} ，它是最高应力与标称远场应力的比率。对于无限板中的圆孔，K t = 3 {\displaystyle K_{t}=3} 。
In solid mechanics, a stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser or notch sensitivity) is a location in an object where the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress concentrations occur when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component that cause an interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from such details as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress concentrations may also occur from accidental damage such as nicks and scratches. The degree of concentration of a discontinuity under typically tensile loads can be expressed as a non-dimensional stress concentration factor K t {\displaystyle K_{t}} , which is the ratio of the highest stress to the nominal far field stress. For a circular hole in an infinite plate, K t = 3 {\displaystyle K_{t}=3} .
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在连续介质力学中，最大变形能准则（也称为冯·米塞斯屈服准则）指出，当偏应力的第二个不变量 J 2 {\displaystyle J_{2}} 达到临界值时，延性材料开始屈服。它是塑性理论的一部分，主要适用于延性材料，例如某些金属。在屈服之前，材料响应可以假设为线性弹性、非线性弹性或粘弹性行为。在材料科学与工程中，冯·米塞斯屈服准则也根据冯·米塞斯应力或等效拉伸应力 σ v {\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{v}}} 来制定。这是可以根据柯西应力张量计算出的应力标量值。
In continuum mechanics, the maximum distortion energy criterion (also von Mises yield criterion) states that yielding of a ductile material begins when the second invariant of deviatoric stress J 2 {\displaystyle J_{2}} reaches a critical value. It is a part of plasticity theory that mostly applies to ductile materials, such as some metals. Prior to yield, material response can be assumed to be of a linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, or viscoelastic behavior. In materials science and engineering, the von Mises yield criterion is also formulated in terms of the von Mises stress or equivalent tensile stress, σ v {\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{v}}} . This is a scalar value of stress that can be computed from the Cauchy stress tensor.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 莫尔圆是柯西应力张量变换定律的二维图形表示。莫尔圆经常用于与机械工程的材料强度、岩土工程的土壤强度以及结构工程的建筑结构强度相关的计算。它还用于通过将许多平面中的应力简化为垂直和水平分量来计算应力。这些称为主平面，在其中计算主应力；莫尔圆还可用于在图形表示中查找主平面和主应力，并且是最简单的方法之一。对假设为连续体的材料体进行应力分析后，特定材料点处的柯西应力张量相对于坐标系的分量是已知的。
Mohr's circle is a two-dimensional graphical representation of the transformation law for the Cauchy stress tensor. Mohr's circle is often used in calculations relating to mechanical engineering for materials' strength, geotechnical engineering for strength of soils, and structural engineering for strength of built structures. It is also used for calculating stresses in many planes by reducing them to vertical and horizontal components. These are called principal planes in which principal stresses are calculated; Mohr's circle can also be used to find the principal planes and the principal stresses in a graphical representation, and is one of the easiest ways to do so. After performing a stress analysis on a material body assumed as a continuum, the components of the Cauchy stress tensor at a particular material point are known with respect to a coordinate system.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在材料科学中，断裂韧性是尖锐裂纹的临界应力强度因子，其中裂纹的扩展突然变得快速且无限。它是一种材料特性，可量化其在施加应力下抵抗裂纹扩展和失效的能力。部件的厚度会影响裂纹尖端的约束条件，薄部件具有平面应力条件，导致延性行为，厚部件具有平面应变条件，其中约束增加，导致脆性破坏。平面应变条件给出最低的断裂韧性值，这是一种材料特性。在平面应变条件下测得的 I 型加载应力强度因子的临界值称为平面应变断裂韧性，记为 K Ic {\displaystyle K_{\text{Ic}}} 。
In materials science, fracture toughness is the critical stress intensity factor of a sharp crack where propagation of the crack suddenly becomes rapid and unlimited. It is a material property that quantifies its ability to resist crack propagation and failure under applied stress. A component's thickness affects the constraint conditions at the tip of a crack with thin components having plane stress conditions, leading to ductile behavior and thick components having plane strain conditions, where the constraint increases, leading to brittle failure. Plane strain conditions give the lowest fracture toughness value which is a material property. The critical value of stress intensity factor in mode I loading measured under plane strain conditions is known as the plane strain fracture toughness, denoted K Ic {\displaystyle K_{\text{Ic}}} .
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在连续介质力学中，柯西应力张量（符号 σ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}} ，以 Augustin-Louis Cauchy 命名），也称为真应力张量或简称应力张量，完全定义了处于变形状态、放置或配置的材料内部一点的应力状态。
In continuum mechanics, the Cauchy stress tensor (symbol σ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}} , named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy), also called true stress tensor or simply stress tensor, completely defines the state of stress at a point inside a material in the deformed state, placement, or configuration.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在材料科学与工程中，屈服点是应力-应变曲线上的点，表明弹性行为的极限和塑性行为的开始。低于屈服点，材料将发生弹性变形，并在去除所施加的应力后恢复到其原始形状。一旦超过屈服点，部分变形将是永久且不可逆的，称为塑性变形。屈服强度或屈服应力是一种材料特性，是与材料开始塑性变形的屈服点相对应的应力。屈服强度通常用于确定机械部件的最大允许载荷，因为它代表在不产生永久变形的情况下可以施加的力的上限。
In materials science and engineering, the yield point is the point on a stress–strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the beginning of plastic behavior. Below the yield point, a material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible and is known as plastic deformation. The yield strength or yield stress is a material property and is the stress corresponding to the yield point at which the material begins to deform plastically. The yield strength is often used to determine the maximum allowable load in a mechanical component, since it represents the upper limit to forces that can be applied without producing permanent deformation.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在微分方程中，边值问题是一个微分方程和一组称之为边界条件的约束条件。边值问题的解通常是符合约束条件的微分方程的解。 物理学中经常遇到边值问题，例如波动方程等。许多重要的边值问题属于Sturm-Liouville问题。这类问题的分析会和微分算子的本征函数有关。 在实际应用中，边值问题应当是适定的（即：存在解，解唯一且解会随着初始值连续地变化）。许多偏微分方程领域的理论提出是为要证明科学及工程应用的许多边值问题都是适定问题。 最早研究的边值问题是狄利克雷问题，是要找出调和函数，也就是拉普拉斯方程的解，后来是用狄利克雷原理找到相关的解。
In the study of differential equations, a boundary-value problem is a differential equation subjected to constraints called boundary conditions. A solution to a boundary value problem is a solution to the differential equation which also satisfies the boundary conditions. Boundary value problems arise in several branches of physics as any physical differential equation will have them. Problems involving the wave equation, such as the determination of normal modes, are often stated as boundary value problems. A large class of important boundary value problems are the Sturm–Liouville problems. The analysis of these problems, in the linear case, involves the eigenfunctions of a differential operator. To be useful in applications, a boundary value problem should be well posed.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 3D 打印，也称为增材制造，是根据 CAD 模型或数字 3D 模型构建三维物体。它可以通过多种过程来完成，其中材料在计算机控制下沉积、连接或固化，并且材料被添加在一起（例如塑料、液体或粉末颗粒被融合），通常是逐层添加。在 20 世纪 80 年代，3D 打印技术被认为只适合生产功能或美学原型，当时更合适的术语是快速原型制作。截至 2019 年，3D 打印的精度、可重复性和材料范围已有所增加，以至于某些 3D 打印工艺被认为是可行的工业生产技术；在这种情况下，术语“增材制造”可以与 3D 打印同义使用。
3D printing, also called additive manufacturing, is the construction of a three-dimensional object from a CAD model or a digital 3D model. It can be done in a variety of processes in which material is deposited, joined or solidified under computer control, with the material being added together (e.g. plastics, liquids, or powder grains being fused), typically layer by layer. In the 1980s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only for the production of functional or aesthetic prototypes, and a more appropriate term for it at the time was rapid prototyping. As of 2019, the precision, repeatability, and material range of 3D printing have increased to the point that some 3D printing processes are considered viable as an industrial-production technology; in this context, the term additive manufacturing can be used synonymously with 3D printing.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 接触力学是一门研究在一个或多个点相互接触的固体变形的学科。接触力学的一个主要区别是垂直作用于接触体表面的应力（称为法向应力）和沿切向作用在表面之间的摩擦应力（剪切应力）。正常接触力学或无摩擦接触力学侧重于由施加的法向力和紧密接触表面上存在的粘附力引起的法向应力，即使它们是干净和干燥的。摩擦接触力学强调摩擦力的影响。接触力学是机械工程的一部分。该学科的物理和数学公式建立在材料力学和连续介质力学的基础上，重点关注涉及静态或动态接触的弹性、粘弹性和塑性体的计算。
Contact mechanics is the study of the deformation of solids that touch each other at one or more points. A central distinction in contact mechanics is between stresses acting perpendicular to the contacting bodies' surfaces (known as normal stress) and frictional stresses acting tangentially between the surfaces (shear stress). Normal contact mechanics or frictionless contact mechanics focuses on normal stresses caused by applied normal forces and by the adhesion present on surfaces in close contact, even if they are clean and dry. Frictional contact mechanics emphasizes the effect of friction forces. Contact mechanics is part of mechanical engineering. The physical and mathematical formulation of the subject is built upon the mechanics of materials and continuum mechanics and focuses on computations involving elastic, viscoelastic, and plastic bodies in static or dynamic contact.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 有限元法 (FEM) 是对工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程进行数值求解的常用方法。感兴趣的典型问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量传输和电磁势等传统领域。计算机通常用于执行所需的计算。借助高速超级计算机，可以实现更好的解决方案，并且通常需要解决最大、最复杂的问题。 FEM 是一种用于求解二空间或三空间变量中的偏微分方程（即某些边值问题）的通用数值方法。也有关于使用有限元法解决高维问题的研究。为了解决问题，FEM 将大型系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。
Finite element method (FEM) is a popular method for numerically solving differential equations arising in engineering and mathematical modeling. Typical problem areas of interest include the traditional fields of structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and electromagnetic potential. Computers are usually used to perform the calculations required. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems. FEM is a general numerical method for solving partial differential equations in two- or three-space variables (i.e., some boundary value problems). There are also studies about using FEM to solve high-dimensional problems. To solve a problem, FEM subdivides a large system into smaller, simpler parts called finite elements.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在力学和热力学中，热应力是由材料温度的任何变化产生的机械应力。这些应力可能导致破裂或塑性变形，具体取决于加热的其他变量，包括材料类型和约束。温度梯度、热膨胀或收缩以及热冲击都会导致热应力。这种类型的应力高度依赖于不同材料的热膨胀系数。一般来说，温度变化越大，可能发生的应力水平就越高。温度的快速变化可能会导致热冲击，从而导致破裂或破碎。
In mechanics and thermodynamics, thermal stress is mechanical stress created by any change in temperature of a material. These stresses can lead to fracturing or plastic deformation depending on the other variables of heating, which include material types and constraints. Temperature gradients, thermal expansion or contraction and thermal shocks are things that can lead to thermal stress. This type of stress is highly dependent on the thermal expansion coefficient which varies from material to material. In general, the greater the temperature change, the higher the level of stress that can occur. Thermal shock can result from a rapid change in temperature, resulting in cracking or shattering.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在连续介质力学中，如果一种材料的应力矢量在某一特定平面上为零，则这种材料视为处于平面应力（Plane Stress）状态。当这种情况发生在整个结构上时，例如薄板的情况，因为应力状态可以用维数为2的张量来表示（可以用2×2矩阵而不是3×3来表示），应力分析因此被简化。另有与之相关的一个概念：平面应变，通常适用于较厚的结构部件。 平面应力的情况通常发生在薄的平板上，这些平板只受平行于它们的荷载力的作用。在某些情况下，为了应力分析的目的，也可以假定一个弯曲幅度较小的薄板具有平面应力。例如，在受到流体压力下的的薄壁圆柱体就是这种情况。在这种情况下，垂直于侧壁的应力成分与平行于侧壁的应力成分相比可以忽略不计。 在其他情况下，薄板的弯曲应力不能被忽略。人们仍然可以通过使用二维平面来简化分析，但每一点的平面应力的张量必须用弯曲项来补充。
In continuum mechanics, a material is said to be under plane stress if the stress vector is zero across a particular plane. When that situation occurs over an entire element of a structure, as is often the case for thin plates, the stress analysis is considerably simplified, as the stress state can be represented by a tensor of dimension 2 (representable as a 2×2 matrix rather than 3×3). A related notion, plane strain, is often applicable to very thick members. Plane stress typically occurs in thin flat plates that are acted upon only by load forces that are parallel to them. In certain situations, a gently curved thin plate may also be assumed to have plane stress for the purpose of stress analysis. This is the case, for example, of a thin-walled cylinder filled with a fluid under pressure.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 表面完整性是工件经过制造工艺修改后的表面状况。该术语由 Michael Field 和 John F. Kahles 于 1964 年创造。工件或物品的表面完整性会改变材料的特性。表面完整性变化的后果是机械工程设计问题，但保留这些特性是制造方面的考虑因素。表面完整性会对零件功能产生很大影响；例如，Inconel 718 在温和磨削后的疲劳极限可高达 540 MPa (78,000 psi)，在放电加工 (EDM) 后可低至 150 MPa (22,000 psi)。
Surface integrity is the surface condition of a workpiece after being modified by a manufacturing process. The term was coined by Michael Field and John F. Kahles in 1964. The surface integrity of a workpiece or item changes the material's properties. The consequences of changes to surface integrity are a mechanical engineering design problem, but the preservation of those properties are a manufacturing consideration. Surface integrity can have a great impact on a parts function; for example, Inconel 718 can have a fatigue limit as high as 540 MPa (78,000 psi) after a gentle grinding or as low as 150 MPa (22,000 psi) after electrical discharge machining (EDM).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在材料科学和土壤力学中，滑移线场或滑移线场理论是一种经常用于分析金属或土壤主要变形所涉及的应力和力的技术。本质上，在包括平面应变和平面应力弹塑性问题在内的一些问题中，材料的弹性部分阻止了不受限制的塑性流动，但在许多金属成形过程中，例如轧制、拉拔、吹胀等，除了许多小的弹性区域外，还会发生大量的不受限制的塑性流动。实际上，我们关注的是平面应变条件下的硬塑材料。事实证明，求解应力方程的最简单方法是用沿着潜在滑动（或破坏）表面的坐标系来表达它们。正是由于这个原因，这种类型的分析在文献中被称为滑移线分析或滑移线场理论。
In materials science and soil mechanics, a slip line field or slip line field theory is a technique often used to analyze the stresses and forces involved in the major deformation of metals or soils. In essence, in some problems including plane strain and plane stress elastic-plastic problems, elastic part of the material prevent unrestrained plastic flow but in many metal-forming processes, such as rolling, drawing, gorging, etc., large unrestricted plastic flows occur except for many small elastic zones. In effect we are concerned with a rigid-plastic material under condition of plane strain. it turns out that the simplest way of solving stress equations is to express them in terms of a coordinate system that is along potential slip (or failure) surfaces. It is for this reason that this type of analysis is termed slip line analysis or the theory of slip line fields in the literature.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 润滑是使用润滑剂来减少两个表面之间接触的摩擦和磨损的过程或技术。润滑研究是摩擦学领域的一门学科。流体润滑系统等润滑机构的设计使得所施加的负载部分或完全由流体动力或静水压力承载，从而减少固体相互作用（从而减少摩擦和磨损）。根据表面分离程度，可以区分不同的润滑方式。充足的润滑可以使机器元件平稳、连续地运行，降低磨损率，并防止轴承处出现过大的应力或卡住。通过排斥水和其他物质，它还可以减少腐蚀。
Lubrication is the process or technique of using a lubricant to reduce friction and wear and tear in a contact between two surfaces. The study of lubrication is a discipline in the field of tribology. Lubrication mechanisms such as fluid-lubricated systems are designed so that the applied load is partially or completely carried by hydrodynamic or hydrostatic pressure, which reduces solid body interactions (and consequently friction and wear). Depending on the degree of surface separation, different lubrication regimes can be distinguished. Adequate lubrication allows smooth, continuous operation of machine elements, reduces the rate of wear, and prevents excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. By repelling water and other substances, it also reduces corrosion.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
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