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Biochemistry遗传编码钙指示器 GCaMPGCaMP是一种基因编码钙指示剂（GECI），最初由中井淳一于2001年开发。 它由绿色荧光蛋白（GFP）、钙调蛋白（calmodulin,CaM）和源自肌球蛋白轻链激酶的肽序列M13通过人工融合构成。 当与Ca2+结合时，GCaMP会发出绿色荧光，其激发峰波长峰值为480 nm，发射峰波长约为510 nm。 在生物学研究中，GCaMP被广泛用于测量体外和体内细胞内Ca2+水平，通常通过病毒转染或在转基因细胞系与动物品系中表达。 GCaMP的编码基因序列可以置于只在特定细胞类型中活跃的启动子的控制下，从而实现GCaMP在特定细胞类型中的特异性表达。 由于Ca2+是参与多种细胞机制和信号通路的第二信使，GCaMP能够使研究者定量分析基于Ca2+的各种活动，并研究Ca2+离子在相关生物学过程中所发挥的作用。
GCaMP is a genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI) initially developed in 2001 by Junichi Nakai. It is a synthetic fusion of green fluorescent protein (GFP), calmodulin (CaM), and M13, a peptide sequence from myosin light-chain kinase. When bound to Ca2+, GCaMP fluoresces green with a peak excitation wavelength of 480 nm and a peak emission wavelength of 510 nm. It is used in biological research to measure intracellular Ca2+ levels both in vitro and in vivo using virally transfected or transgenic cell and animal lines. The genetic sequence encoding GCaMP can be inserted under the control of promoters exclusive to certain cell types, allowing for cell-type specific expression of GCaMP. Since Ca2+ is a second messenger that contributes to many cellular mechanisms and signaling pathways, GCaMP allows researchers to quantify the activity of Ca2+-based mechanisms and study the role of Ca2+ ions in biological processes of interest.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 小孢子灵芝免疫调节蛋白质 (英语：Ganoderma microsporum immunomodulatory protein, GMI) 是一个从小孢子灵芝中发现、由 111 个氨基酸组成的单链单纯蛋白质。
Ganoderma microsporum immunomodulatory protein or GMI is a protein discovered from the mushroom species Ganoderma microsporum. GMI is a pure protein composed of 111 amino acids and exists in nature as a tetramer.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ p53或p53蛋白、肿瘤蛋白p53（tumor protein p53）化学式为：C1911H3006O592N548S22(包含甲基化)，是一种调节性转录因子和肿瘤抑制因子，在细胞应激反应时被激活，通过修复或清除受损细胞，从而防止细胞发生癌变。p53蛋白在脊椎动物中具有重要功能，其通过预防基因组突变来维持稳定性、抑制肿瘤形成 ，因此p53被称为“基因组守护者”。TP53基因是位于人类染色体17p13.1上的一种抑癌基因，其编码p53蛋白。 p53是一系列同源异构蛋白的统称，属于一种肿瘤抑制蛋白，由 TP53（人体）及 Trp53（老鼠）基因编码。该蛋白是最早发现的肿瘤抑制基因所编码的蛋白之一。p53蛋白能调节细胞周期，促使细胞出现凋亡或细胞衰老（cell senescence）等现象，从而避免细胞癌变发生。p53蛋白能保持基因组的稳定性，避免或减少突变的发生。因此被称为基因组守护者。 p53得名于1979年，因为其的分子量于SDS凝胶电泳中测得约为53kDa。不过依据氨基酸序列进行计算后发现p53蛋白的分子量应为43.7kDa.两者所测得之分子量差别是因为该蛋白中存在大量的脯氨酸残基，减缓了其在SDS胶电泳中的迁移速度。而此迁移速度减缓的效应在跨物种的p53蛋白皆已被观察，如人类，啮齿动物，青蛙和鱼类。 目前在人体内发现的p53同源异构蛋白有15种；另外由于FOXO4可和p53结合以促进细胞衰老之故，因此一些和FOXO4有竞争效应的胜肽，可借由将p53屏除于细胞核之外而成为返老药（Senolytic）。
p53, also known as tumor protein p53, TP53, cellular tumor antigen p53 (UniProt name), or transformation-related protein 53 (TRP53) is a regulatory transcription factor protein that is often mutated in human cancers. The p53 proteins (originally thought to be, and often spoken of as, a single protein) are crucial in vertebrates, where they prevent cancer formation. As such, p53 has been described as "the guardian of the genome" because of its role in conserving stability by preventing genome mutation. Hence TP53 is classified as a tumor suppressor gene. The TP53 gene is inactivated in a majority (>50%) of human cancer cases. This can be caused by any various factors, including mutations in the gene, epigenetic events, or interactions with other proteins. This association indicates that the TP53 gene plays a crucial role in preventing cancer formation. TP53 gene encodes proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression to prevent mutations of the genome. In addition to the full-length protein, the human TP53 gene encodes at least 12 protein isoforms.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 肽类激素（英语：Peptide Hormones）是由肽分子组成的激素。这些激素影响包括人类在内的动物的内分泌系统。 大多数激素分为氨基酸类激素（胺、肽或蛋白质）和类固醇激素。氨基酸类激素是水溶性的，通过第二信使系统作用于靶细胞；而类固醇激素是脂溶性的，它们扩散穿过细胞膜，直接与细胞核中的细胞内受体相互作用。 与其他肽类一样，肽类激素在细胞内由氨基酸合成，其合成过程基于mRNA转录本，而mRNA转录本则来源于细胞核内的DNA模板。最初的前体，即前激素原，在内质网中进行加工。这一过程包括去除N端信号肽，在某些情况下还会进行糖基化，最终生成激素原。这些激素原随后被包装到分泌囊泡中，储存起来，并在特定刺激（例如细胞内Ca2+和cAMP水平升高）的作用下通过胞吐作用释放。 激素原通常含有额外的氨基酸序列，这些序列对于其正确折叠是必需的，但并非激素活性所必需的。特定的内肽酶会在分泌前切割激素原，生成成熟的、具有生物活性的激素。肽类激素进入血液后，会遍布全身，并与靶细胞膜上的特定受体结合。 有些神经递质的分泌和释放方式与肽类激素类似，某些“神经肽”既在神经系统中发挥神经递质的作用，又在血液中发挥激素的作用。 当肽类激素与细胞表面的受体结合时，它会激活细胞质内的第二信使 ，从而触发信号转导通路，最终导致特定的细胞反应。 最小的肽类激素可由三个氨基酸组成，如促甲状腺激素释放激素（英语：Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone，TRH）。多数肽类激素可由十几个、几十个或乃至上百及几百个氨基酸组成。肽类激素的主要分泌器官是下丘脑及脑垂体，在其他一些器官中，如胃肠道、脑组织、肺及心脏中也发现一些内源性肽类激素，多数处于研究阶段。
Peptide hormones are hormones composed of peptide molecules. These hormones influence the endocrine system of animals, including humans. Most hormones are classified as either amino-acid-based hormones (amines, peptides, or proteins) or steroid hormones. Amino-acid-based hormones are water-soluble and act on target cells via second messenger systems, whereas steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, diffuse through plasma membranes to interact directly with intracellular receptors in the cell nucleus. Like all peptides, peptide hormones are synthesized in cellsfrom amino acids based on mRNA transcripts, which are derived from DNA templates inside the cell nucleus. The initial precursors, known as preprohormones, undergo processing in the endoplasmic reticulum. This includes the removal of the N-terminal signal peptide and, in some cases, glycosylation, yielding prohormones. These prohormones are then packaged into secretory vesicles, which are stored and released via exocytosis in response to specific stimuli, such as an increase in intracellular Ca2+ and cAMP levels.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 类骨质（Osteoid）是指骨骼形成过程中暂时存在于成骨细胞周围的一类未矿化的有机质。类骨质由成骨细胞分泌，主要成分为1型胶原蛋白、硫酸软骨素，以及骨钙蛋白。随着骨骼的成熟，类骨质会发生矿化（也称为钙化），转变为骨基质。
In histology, osteoid is the unmineralized, organic portion of the bone matrix that forms prior to the maturation of bone tissue. Osteoblasts begin the process of forming bone tissue by secreting the osteoid as several specific proteins. The osteoid and its adjacent bone cells have developed into new bone tissue when it becomes mineralized. Osteoid makes up about fifty percent of bone volume and forty percent of bone weight. It is composed of fibers and ground substance. The predominant type of fiber is type I collagen and comprises ninety percent of the osteoid. The ground substance is mostly made up of chondroitin sulfate and osteocalcin. Osteoblasts synthesize and secrete osteoid as an unmineralized organic matrix, and when the osteoid becomes mineralized through deposition of calcium salts, it transforms into mature bone tissue.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ p73，又称为TP73，是p53蛋白家族的成员之一，以其分子量为73kD而得名，存在多种转录变体。p73的结构和功能均与p53类似，为肿瘤抑制蛋白，能调控细胞增殖并促进细胞凋亡。过表达p73的细胞增殖会停止。
p73 is a protein related to the p53 tumor protein. Because of its structural resemblance to p53, it has also been considered a tumor suppressor. It is involved in cell cycle regulation, and induction of apoptosis. Like p53, p73 is characterized by the presence of different isoforms of the protein. This is explained by splice variants, and an alternative promoter in the DNA sequence. p73, also known as tumor protein 73 (TP73), protein was the first identified homologue of the tumor suppressor gene, p53. Like p53, p73 has several variants. It is expressed as distinct forms differing at either at the C- or the N-terminus. Currently, six different C-terminus splicing variants have been found in normal cells. The p73 gene encodes a protein with a significant sequence homology and a functional similarity with the tumor suppressor p53. The over-expression of p73 in cultured cells promotes a growth arrest and/or apoptosis similarly to p53. The p73 gene has been mapped to a chromosome region (1p36. 2–3) a locus commonly deleted in various tumor entities and human cancers.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 豌豆蛋白是一种从豌豆分离出的蛋白质原料，主要用来制作奶类替代食品，例如非奶制纯素起司 和优格。 它主要是从黄色豌豆(学名Pisum sativum) 所萃取，并含有典型的豆类氨基酸。 不同种的豌豆株的会影响蛋白质的特性。 豌豆蛋白分离出的豆球蛋白，其特性有些类似于酪蛋白，因此豌豆蛋白制品常被用来替代乳清蛋白食品。 由于消费者对大豆制品可能为基因改造而有所顾虑，豌豆蛋白食品的有些行销诉求就是用来取代大豆制品。
Pea protein is a food product and protein supplement derived and extracted from yellow and green split peas, Pisum sativum. It can be used as a dietary supplement to increase an individual's protein or other nutrient intake, or as a substitute for other food products (e.g. the substitution of dairy milk by pea milk). As a powder, it is used as an ingredient in food manufacturing, such as a thickener, foaming agent, or an emulsifier. It is extracted in a powder form and can be processed and produced in different ways: As an isolate - through the process of wet fractionation which produces a high protein concentration As a concentrate - through the process of dry fractionation which produces a low protein concentration In textured form, which is when it is used in food products as a substitute for other products, such as meat alternatives Pea protein has low allergenicity and high nutritional value. It is common as a source of protein in vegan and vegetarian food, and in protein supplement products.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 生物化学或生物化学（与化学生物学不同）是对生物体内部和与之相关的化学过程的研究。生物化学是化学和生物学的子学科，可分为三个领域：结构生物学、酶学和新陈代谢。在 20 世纪的最后几十年中，生物化学通过这三个学科成功地解释了生命过程。生命科学的几乎所有领域都是通过生化方法和研究来发现和发展的。生物化学侧重于了解生物分子在活细胞内和细胞间发生的过程的化学基础，进而与对组织和器官以及生物体结构和功能的理解密切相关。
Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 酶（英语：enzyme，/ˈɛnzaɪm/），又称酵素，是一类大分子生物催化剂。酶能加快化学反应的速度（即具有催化作用）。由酶催化的反应中，反应物称为底物，生成的物质称为产物。几乎所有细胞内的代谢过程都离不开酶。酶能大大加快这些过程中各化学反应进行的速率，使代谢产生的物质和能量能满足生物体的需求。细胞中酶的类型对可在该细胞中发生的代谢途径的类型起决定作用。对酶进行研究的学科称为酶学（enzymology）。 目前已知酶可以催化超过5000种生化反应。大部分酶是蛋白质，有少部分酶是具有催化活性的核糖核酸（RNA）分子，这些酶被称为核酶。酶的特异性是由其独特的三级结构决定的。 和所有的催化剂一样，酶通过降低反应激活能来加快化学反应速率。一些酶可以将底物转化为产物的速率提高数百万倍。一个比较极端的例子是乳清苷-5'-磷酸脱羧酶。该酶可以使在无催化剂条件下需要进行数百万年的化学反应在几毫秒内完成。从化学原理上讲，酶和其它所有催化剂一样，反应不会使其物质量发生变化。酶亦不能改变化学平衡，这一点和其它催化剂也是一样的。酶和其它催化剂的不同之处在于，它们的专一性要强得多。一些分子可以影响酶的活性。如酶抑制剂能降低酶的活性，酶激活剂能提高酶的活性。许多药物及毒物是酶的抑制剂。当超出或小于适宜的温度和pH值后，酶的活性会显著下降。 酶在工业和人们的日常生活中的应用也非常广泛。例如，药厂用特定的合成酶来合成抗生素；洗衣粉中添加酶能加速附着在衣物上的蛋白质、淀粉或脂肪渍的分解；嫩肉粉中加入木瓜蛋白酶能将蛋白质分解为稍小的分子，使肉的口感更嫩滑。
An enzyme is a biological macromolecule, usually a protein, that acts as a biological catalyst, accelerating chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. The molecules on which enzymes act are called substrates, which are converted into products. Nearly all metabolic processes within a cell depend on enzyme catalysis to occur at biologically relevant rates. A metabolic pathway is typically composed of a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps. The study of enzymes is known as enzymology, and a related field focuses on pseudoenzymes—proteins that have lost catalytic activity but may retain regulatory or scaffolding functions, often indicated by alterations in their amino acid sequences or unusual 'pseudocatalytic' behavior. Enzymes are known to catalyze over 5,000 types of biochemical reactions.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 催化（catalysis）或催化作用，是利用催化剂参与，改变化学反应速率而不影响化学平衡的作用。广泛发生于无机物反应、有机物反应、生物体内反应。 许多化学工业要利用催化作用来获得需要的反应速率。催化也是一种化工单元过程，催化剂本身在反应中不会被消耗，但催化剂会改变反应速率，一催化剂亦可能参与复数的催化反应。正催化剂可加速反应；负催化剂或抑制剂则会与反应物反应进而降低化学反应。可提高催化剂活性的物质称为促进剂；降低催化剂活性者则称为催化毒。 相较于未催化的反应，同温度的催化反应拥有较低的活化能。催化剂可以借由结合反应物达到极化的效果，如酸催化剂之于羰基化合物的合成；催化剂也可产生非自然的反应中间物，如以四氧化锇催化烯烃的双羟基化中产生的锇酸盐酯；催化剂亦可造成反应物的裂解，如制氢时产生的单原子氢。 很多物质都可以做催化剂，在无机物反应中，通常利用酸、碱、金属或金属化合物作为催化剂，在有机物反应中多用有性的蛋白质分子——酶作为催化剂，生物体内许多化学反应都依赖酶来进行的。 催化反应可以发生在均相催化和多相催化中，也可以发生在复相催化中：
Catalysis (, kə-TAL-iss-iss) is the increase in rate of a chemical reaction due to an added substance known as a catalyst ( KAT-əl-ist). Catalysts are not consumed by the reaction and remain unchanged after the reaction. If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst is recycled quickly, a very small amount of catalyst often suffices; mixing, surface area, and temperature are important factors in reaction rate. Catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form intermediates that subsequently give the final reaction product, in the process of regenerating the catalyst. The rate increase occurs because the catalyst allows the reaction to occur by an alternative mechanism which may be much faster than the noncatalyzed mechanism.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 在化学、生物化学及药理学中，解离常数（英语：dissociation constant， K d {\displaystyle K_{d}} ）是一种特定类型的平衡常数，用于衡量一较大物体与另一较小组分分开（解离）的倾向，也可以描述配合物解体成组分分子或盐分裂为其组分离子。解离常数是缔合常数的倒数。对于一些特定的盐，解离常数亦可被称为电离常数。
In chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology, a dissociation constant (KD) is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate (dissociate) reversibly into smaller components, as when a complex falls apart into its component molecules, or when a salt splits up into its component ions. The dissociation constant is the inverse of the association constant. In the special case of salts, the dissociation constant can also be called an ionization constant.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 热力学（英语：thermodynamics） 是物理学的一个分支，研究热现象中能量的转换规律，特别是研究热、功和温度，以及它们与能量和熵的关系。热力学应用于许多科学和工程领域，特别是物理化学、生物化学、化学工程和机械工程，以及气象学等领域。 热力学发端于18世纪对气体和蒸汽机的研究。在19世纪，随着对热机效率和功与热量之间能量转换的研究。开始建立起热力学定律，标志着热力学理论的成熟。随着研究的深化，热力学研究被拓展到很多方面，比如相变化、化学反应、输运现象甚至是黑洞。 热力学的研究对象是由大量微观粒子组成的热力学系统。热力学系统温度、压强和内能等由宏观物理量描述，这些物理量的行为受到四个热力学定律的约束。热力学定律是从实验中总结出来的，但也可以通过统计力学从微观角度来解释。
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic physical quantities but may be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to various topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical engineering, and mechanical engineering, as well as other complex fields such as meteorology. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Sadi Carnot (1824).
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 在热力学中，某种物质的化学势指的是，在化学反应或者相变中，此物质的粒子数发生改变时所吸收或放出的能量。在混合物中的某种物质的化学势定义为此热力学系统的吉布斯自由能对此物质粒子数的变化率，即偏导数（其他物质的粒子数及其他系统参数保持不变）。当温度和压强固定时，化学势也被称作偏摩尔吉布斯自由能，或者摩尔化学势。在化学平衡或相平衡状态下，自由能处于极小值，各种物质的化学势与化学计量系数乘积之和为零。 在半导体物理中，零温电子系统的化学势被称为费米能。
In thermodynamics, the chemical potential of a species is the energy that can be absorbed or released due to a change of the particle number of the given species, e.g. in a chemical reaction or phase transition. The chemical potential of a species in a mixture is defined as the rate of change of free energy of a thermodynamic system with respect to the change in the number of atoms or molecules of the species that are added to the system. Thus, it is the partial derivative of the free energy with respect to the amount of the species, all other species' concentrations in the mixture remaining constant. When both temperature and pressure are held constant, and the number of particles is expressed in moles, the chemical potential is the partial molar Gibbs free energy.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ Western印迹法（英语：Western blot）或称“蛋白质转渍法”、“免疫印迹法”（immunoblot）或“西式吸印杂交”，是在分子生物学、生物化学和免疫遗传学中常用的一种实验方法，也是HIV检测的方法之一。 利用特定抗体能够专一结合其抗原蛋白质的原理来对样品进行着色，通过分析着色的位置和着色深度获得特定蛋白质在所分析的细胞或组织中的表达情况的信息，来分析检测特定蛋白质的生物学检测技术。 发明者一般认为是美国斯坦福大学的乔治·斯塔克（George Stark）。在尼尔·伯奈特（Neal Burnette）于1981年所著的《分析生物化学》（Analytical Biochemistry）中首次被称为“Western印迹法”。
The Western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot), or Western blotting, is a widely used analytical technique in molecular biology and immunogenetics to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract, and to visualize, distinguish, and quantify the different proteins in a complicated protein combination. Western blot technique uses three elements to achieve its task of separating a specific protein from a complex: separation by size, transfer of protein to a solid support, and marking target protein using a primary and secondary antibody to visualize. A synthetic or animal-derived antibody (known as the primary antibody) is created that recognizes and binds to a specific target protein. The electrophoresis membrane is washed in a solution containing the primary antibody, before excess antibody is washed off.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 亲和色谱法（英语：Affinity chromatography，又称为亲和层析）是一种利用固定相的结合特性来分离分子的色谱方法。亲和色谱在凝胶过滤色谱柱上连接与待分离的物质有一定结合能力的分子，并且它们的结合是可逆的，在改变流动相条件时二者还能相互分离。亲和色谱可以用来从混合物中纯化或浓缩某一分子，也可以用来去除或减少混合物中某一分子的含量。
Affinity chromatography is a method of separating a biomolecule from a mixture, based on a highly specific macromolecular binding interaction between the biomolecule and another substance. The specific type of binding interaction depends on the biomolecule of interest; antigen and antibody, enzyme and substrate, receptor and ligand, or protein and nucleic acid binding interactions are frequently exploited for isolation of various biomolecules. Affinity chromatography is useful for its high selectivity and resolution of separation, compared to other chromatographic methods.
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View content license ↗ 埃德曼降解（英语：Edman degradation，或埃德曼分解），也根据所使用试剂而被称为“PTC法”或“PTH法”，是肽链或蛋白质中N-端氨基酸序列分析方法之一。由菲尔·埃德曼（Pehr Edman）首先创立。
Edman degradation, developed by Pehr Edman, is a method of sequencing amino acids in a peptide. In this method, the amino-terminal residue is labeled and cleaved from the peptide without disrupting the peptide bonds between other amino acid residues.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 荧光（英语：fluorescence）是光致冷发光现象，可以在气体、液体或固体化学体系中发生。当某种常温物质分子在单重基态吸收某种波长的入射光（通常是紫外线或X光）后被激发至单重激发态而产生的。当电子从激发态返回到基态时（几乎立即（大约在 10^-8 秒内），是由于材料中的原子受到激发后会释放出一个能量较低、波长较长的光子，其能量低于之前吸收的光子（通常波长比入射光的波长，在可见光波段）而且由于再发射过程非常迅速，一旦激发源被移除，荧光便会立即停止，而不像磷光那样会持续发光一段时间。（其与磷光不同，是因为电子的自旋方向仍然与基态电子保持配对。）有这性质的出射光就称为荧光。一般以持续发光时间来分辨荧光或磷光，持续发光时间短于10−8秒的称为荧光，长于10−8秒的称为磷光(原因详见磷光)，严谨的定义基于发光的物理机制，而非持续时间。在日常生活，人们通常把各种微弱的光都一律称为荧光。
Fluorescence is one of two kinds of photoluminescence, the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. When exposed to ultraviolet radiation, many substances will glow (fluoresce) with colored visible light. The color of the light emitted depends on the chemical composition of the substance. Fluorescent materials generally cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops. This distinguishes them from the other type of light emission, phosphorescence. Phosphorescent materials continue to emit light for some time after the radiation stops. This difference in duration is a result of quantum spin effects. Fluorescence occurs when a photon from incoming radiation is absorbed by a molecule, exciting it to a higher energy level, followed by the emission of light as the molecule returns to a lower energy state.
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View content license ↗ 蛋白质折叠（英语：Protein folding）是蛋白质获得其功能性结构和构象的物理过程。通过这一物理过程，蛋白质从无规则卷曲折叠成特定的功能性三维结构。在从mRNA序列翻译成线性的氨基酸链时，蛋白质都是以去折叠多肽或无规则卷曲的形式存在。 蛋白质的基本单位为氨基酸，而蛋白质的一级结构指的就是其氨基酸序列。蛋白质会由所含氨基酸残基的亲水性、疏水性、带正电、带负电等特性通过残基间的相互作用而折叠成一立体的三级结构。 根据克里斯琴·B·安芬森（1972年的诺贝尔化学奖得主）的研究，蛋白质可由加热或置于某些化学环境而变性，三级结构解体；而当环境回复到原本的状态时，蛋白质可于不到一秒的时间折叠至原先的立体结构，不论试验几次，蛋白质都仅此一种立体结构，于是安芬森提出一个结论：蛋白质分子的一级结构决定其立体结构（安芬森法则）。 安芬森的研究结果非常重要，因为蛋白质的功能取决于其立体结构，而目前根据已知某基因序列可翻译获得对应蛋白质的氨基酸序列，即蛋白质的一级结构；如果从蛋白质的一级结构就能知道立体结构，那么即可直接从基因推测其编码蛋白质所对应的生物学功能。虽然蛋白质可在短时间中从一级结构折叠至立体结构，研究者却无法在短时间中从氨基酸序列计算出蛋白质结构，甚至无法得到准确的三维结构。因此，研究蛋白质折叠的过程，可以说是破译折叠密码的过程。 目前蛋白质的再折叠依然遵从先使用胍或脲变性，然后逐渐降低胍或者脲的浓度，也就是逐渐降低对蛋白质天然“回缩”能力的干扰。使其自然回到天然的最低能量状态。只是这个过程无法很好的控制肽链与肽链之间和肽链内部形成错误折叠的干扰。
Protein folding is the physical process by which a protein, after synthesis by a ribosome as a linear chain of amino acids, changes from an unstable random coil into a more ordered three-dimensional structure. This structure permits the protein to become biologically functional or active. The folding of many proteins begins even during the translation of the polypeptide chain. The amino acids interact with each other to produce a well-defined three-dimensional structure, known as the protein's native state. This structure is determined by the amino-acid sequence or primary structure. The correct three-dimensional structure is essential to function, although some parts of functional proteins may remain unfolded, indicating that protein dynamics are important.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 分子动力学（MD）是一种分析原子和分子物理运动的计算机模拟方法。原子和分子可以在固定的时间内相互作用，从而可以看到系统的动态“演化”。在最常见的版本中，原子和分子的轨迹是通过数值求解相互作用粒子系统的牛顿运动方程来确定的，其中粒子之间的力及其势能通常使用原子间势或分子机械力场来计算。 MD模拟广泛应用于化学物理、材料科学和生物物理学。由于分子系统通常由大量粒子组成，因此不可能通过分析确定此类复杂系统的性质； MD模拟通过使用数值方法来规避这个问题。
Molecular dynamics (MD) is a computer simulation method for analyzing the physical movements of atoms and molecules. The atoms and molecules are allowed to interact for a fixed period of time, giving a view of the dynamic "evolution" of the system. In the most common version, the trajectories of atoms and molecules are determined by numerically solving Newton's equations of motion for a system of interacting particles, where forces between the particles and their potential energies are often calculated using interatomic potentials or molecular mechanical force fields. MD simulations are widely applied in chemical physics, materials science, and biophysics. Because molecular systems typically consist of a vast number of particles, it is impossible to determine the properties of such complex systems analytically; MD simulation circumvents this problem by using numerical methods.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在链状生物分子（例如蛋白质或核酸）中，结构基序是常见的三维结构，出现在各种不同的、进化上不相关的分子中。结构基序不必与序列基序相关联；它可以由不同蛋白质或RNA中不同且完全不相关的序列来表示。
In a chain-like biological molecule, such as a protein or nucleic acid, a structural motif is a common three-dimensional structure that appears in a variety of different, evolutionarily unrelated molecules. A structural motif does not have to be associated with a sequence motif; it can be represented by different and completely unrelated sequences in different proteins or RNA.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在系统理论中，如果定义系统或过程行为的变量（称为状态变量）不随时间变化，则系统或过程处于稳定状态。在连续时间内，这意味着对于系统的这些属性 p，相对于时间的偏导数为零并且保持不变：对于所有当前和未来 t ，∂ p ∂ t = 0。
In systems theory, a system or a process is in a steady state if the variables (called state variables) which define the behavior of the system or the process are unchanging in time. In continuous time, this means that for those properties p of the system, the partial derivative with respect to time is zero and remains so: ∂ p ∂ t = 0 for all present and future t .
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 再现性与可重复性和可重复性密切相关，是支撑科学方法的主要原则。研究结果的可重复性意味着，当研究被重复时，通过实验或观察性研究或数据集统计分析获得的结果应该再次获得高度的可靠性。复制有不同类型，但复制研究通常涉及使用相同方法的不同研究人员。只有在一次或多次成功复制之后，结果才能被视为科学知识。
Reproducibility, closely related to replicability and repeatability, is a major principle underpinning the scientific method. For the findings of a study to be reproducible means that results obtained by an experiment or an observational study or in a statistical analysis of a data set should be achieved again with a high degree of reliability when the study is replicated. There are different kinds of replication but typically replication studies involve different researchers using the same methodology. Only after one or several such successful replications should a result be recognized as scientific knowledge.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生物化学中，Eadie-Hofstee 图（或 Eadie-Hofstee 图）是酶动力学中 Michaelis-Menten 方程的图形表示。它有各种不同的名称，包括 Eadie 图、Hofstee 图和 Augustinsson 图。伍尔夫的贡献常常被忽略，因为尽管霍尔丹和斯特恩将基本方程归功于伍尔夫，但这只是他们最初引入的米氏方程的三个线性变换之一。然而，霍尔丹在 1957 年指出，伍尔夫确实发现了三种线性形式： 1932 年，库尔特·斯特恩博士出版了我的书《酶》的德文译本，并对英文文本进行了大量补充。在第 119-120 页，我描述了一些图形方法，并指出它们是我的朋友 Dr.
In biochemistry, an Eadie–Hofstee plot (or Eadie–Hofstee diagram) is a graphical representation of the Michaelis–Menten equation in enzyme kinetics. It has been known by various different names, including Eadie plot, Hofstee plot and Augustinsson plot. Attribution to Woolf is often omitted, because although Haldane and Stern credited Woolf with the underlying equation, it was just one of the three linear transformations of the Michaelis–Menten equation that they initially introduced. However, Haldane indicated in 1957 that Woolf had indeed found the three linear forms:In 1932, Dr. Kurt Stern published a German translation of my book Enzymes, with numerous additions to the English text. On pp. 119–120, I described some graphical methods, stating that they were due to my friend Dr.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生物分析是分析化学的一个子学科，涵盖生物系统中外源物质（药物及其代谢物、非自然位置或浓度的生物分子）和生物物质（大分子、蛋白质、DNA、大分子药物、代谢物）的定量测量。
Bioanalysis is a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry covering the quantitative measurement of xenobiotics (drugs and their metabolites, and biological molecules in unnatural locations or concentrations) and biotics (macromolecules, proteins, DNA, large molecule drugs, metabolites) in biological systems.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 可裂解去垢剂，也称为可裂解表面活性剂，是一种特殊的表面活性剂（去垢剂），用于生物化学，特别是蛋白质组学中，以增强蛋白质的变性和溶解度。通常在酸性条件下，通过裂解使去污剂失活，以使样品与后续程序相容或选择性地除去裂解产物。可裂解去污剂的应用包括蛋白质的蛋白酶消化，例如 SDS PAGE 后用胰蛋白酶进行凝胶内消化以及从电泳凝胶中提取肽。可裂解去污剂主要用于质谱分析的样品制备。
Cleavable detergents, also known as cleavable surfactants, are special surfactants (detergents) that are used in biochemistry and especially in proteomics to enhance protein denaturation and solubility. The detergent is rendered inactive by cleavage, usually under acidic conditions, in order to make the sample compatible with a following procedure or in order to selectively remove the cleavage products. Applications for cleavable detergents include protease digestion of proteins such as in-gel digestion with trypsin after SDS PAGE and peptide extractions from electrophoresis gels. Cleavable detergents are mainly used in sample preparations for mass spectrometry.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在化学中，二氨基酸，也称为二氨基羧酸，是包含一个羧酸和两个胺官能团的分子。二氨基酸属于氨基酸类别。
In chemistry, a diamino acid, also called a diamino carboxylic acid, is a molecule including a carboxylic acid and two amine functional groups. Diamino acids belong to the class of amino acids.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ DNA 尖峰，也称为定制尖峰，是合成寡核苷酸时单个简并位置碱基的不同比例。 DNA 尖峰是指给定位置的碱基比例不等（例如，10% 腺嘌呤、75% 鸟嘌呤、5% 胞嘧啶和 10% 胸腺嘧啶）。例如，对于简并代码 R = A + G，50% 的时间 R 位置是腺嘌呤，另外 50% 的时间是鸟嘌呤。然而，对于 DNA 尖峰，R 位在 70% 的情况下可能是腺嘌呤，在 30% 的情况下可能是鸟嘌呤。比例不必是 70:30，比例可以是其他任何比例，例如 12:82 和 64:36。 DNA 加标也可以指 PCR 中的加标控制，即将 DNA 添加到样品中，为反应提供一些信号（例如质粒或某些具有特定已知序列的合成 DNA），并查看反应是否会扩增。
DNA spiking, also known as custom spiking, is the differing ratio of bases at a single degenerate position when synthesizing oligonucleotides. DNA spiking is an unequal proportions of bases at a given position (for example, 10% Adenine, 75% Guanine, 5% Cytosine & 10% Thymine). As an example, with the degenerate code R = A + G, 50% of the time that R position is adenine and the other 50% of the time it is guanine. However, with DNA Spiking, the R position could be adenine 70% of the time and guanine 30% of the time. The proportions do not need to be 70:30, the ratios can be anything else such as 12:82 and 64:36. DNA spiking can also refer to a spike control in PCR, which is when DNA is added to a sample that will provide some signal (e.g. a plasmid or some synthetic DNA with a specific known sequence) to a reaction, and seeing if the reaction will amplify.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 由 Alexander Dounce 发明并命名为 Dounce 匀浆器或“Douncer”，是一种一端封闭的圆柱形玻璃管，带有两个外径经过仔细指定的玻璃杵，用于温和地匀浆真核细胞（例如哺乳动物细胞）。杜恩斯匀浆器至今仍广泛用于分离细胞器。两个杜恩斯均质器杵（称为“松”或“A”和“紧”或“B”杵）相对于圆筒的内径具有仔细指定的外径。 “A”（松散）杵与气缸壁的间隙为（~0.0025 - 0.0055 英寸），而“B”（紧）杵与气缸壁的间隙为（~0.0005 - 0.0025 英寸）。这允许组织和细胞在最小（如果有）程度的加热下通过剪切应力裂解，从而使提取的细胞器或热敏酶复合物基本完好无损。
Invented by and named for Alexander Dounce , a Dounce homogenizer or "Douncer", is a cylindrical glass tube, closed at one end, with two glass pestles of carefully specified outer diameters, intended for the gentle homogenization of eukaryotic cells (e.g. mammalian cells). Dounce homogenizers are still commonly used today to isolate cellular organelles. The two Dounce homogenizer pestles (known as the "loose" or "A" and "tight" or "B" pestles), have a carefully specified outer diameter, relative to the inner diameter of the cylinder. The "A" (loose) pestle has a clearance from the cylinder wall of (~0.0025 - 0.0055 in.) while the "B" (tight) pestle has a clearance of (~0.0005 - 0.0025 in.). This allows for tissue and cells to be lysed by shear stress with minimal (if any) degree of heating, thereby leaving extracted organelles or heat-sensitive enzyme complexes largely intact.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在生物无机化学中，实体态是“原子或基团的一种状态，由于其与蛋白质的结合，其几何或电子条件适应功能”。该术语由 Bert Vallee 和 R. J. P. Williams 在对碳酸酐酶的催化活性进行研究后创造。这些状态被认为可以增强生物催化中金属离子的化学性质。实体态的一个例子是质体蓝素（一种氧化还原酶）中的铜中心。在这种蛋白质中，铜在氧化态和还原态（分别为 Cu2+ 和 Cu+）之间穿梭。每种氧化态都倾向于不同的配位几何形状：铜（II）通常是方形平面，并且更喜欢硬碱，例如氧和氮配体，而铜（I）通常是四面体，并且优先与软碱（例如硫配体）结合。
In bioinorganic chemistry, an entatic state is "a state of an atom or group which, due to its binding in a protein, has its geometric or electronic condition adapted for function." The term was coined by Bert Vallee and R. J. P. Williams, following work on the catalytic activity of carbonic anhydrase. These states are thought to enhance the chemistry of metal ions in biological catalysis. An example of an entatic state is the copper center in plastocyanin, a redox enzyme. In this protein, the copper shuttles between oxidized and reduced states, Cu2+ and Cu+, respectively. Each oxidation state prefers a distinct coordination geometry: whereas copper(II) is normally square planar and prefers hard bases such as oxygen and nitrogen ligands, copper(I) is normally tetrahedral and binds preferentially to soft bases such as sulphur ligands.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 酶模拟（或人工酶）是仿生化学的一个分支，旨在模仿天然酶的功能。酶模拟物是一种小分子复合物，可模拟酶的分子结构、光谱特性或反应性，有时称为仿生复合物。
Enzyme mimic (or Artificial enzyme) is a branch of biomimetic chemistry, which aims at imitating the function of natural enzymes. An enzyme mimic is a small molecule complex that models the molecular structure, spectroscopic properties, or reactivity of an enzyme, sometimes called bioinspired complexes.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
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