生物化学ERTOLD pathwayERTOLD 途径是已知介导蛋白质定位至脂滴表面的两条途径（即 ERTOLD 和 CYTOLD 途径）之一。与靶向其他细胞器的蛋白质不同，脂滴蛋白在其氨基酸序列中没有嵌入独特的靶向信号或定位序列。然而，脂滴的表面装饰着大量多样的蛋白质，其数量因物种而异。
The ERTOLD pathway is one of two pathways (ie., the ERTOLD & CYTOLD pathways) which are known to mediate protein localization to the surface of lipid droplets. Unlike proteins targeting other cellular organelles, lipid droplet proteins have no distinct targeting signal or localization sequence embedded within their amino acid sequence. Nevertheless, the surface of the lipid droplet is decorated with a vast and diverse repertoire of proteins, the number of which varies from species to species.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗二十碳五烯酸乙酯（USAN、EMA），也以其化学名称二十碳五烯酸乙酯和错误的化学名称乙基二十碳五烯酸（E-EPA）而闻名，以 Vascepa 等商品名出售，是一种用于治疗血脂异常和高甘油三酯血症的药物。它与高甘油三酯血症≥ 150 mg/dL 成人的饮食改变结合使用。此外，通常需要与他汀类药物（最大耐受剂量）一起使用。最常见的副作用是肌肉骨骼疼痛、外周水肿（腿和手肿胀）、心房颤动和关节痛（关节痛）。其他常见的副作用包括出血、便秘、痛风和皮疹。它由 omega-3 脂肪酸二十碳五烯酸 (EPA) 制成。
Icosapent ethyl (USAN, EMA), also known by its chemical name ethyl eicosapentaenoate and incorrect chemical name ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid (E-EPA), sold under the brand name Vascepa among others, is a medication used to treat dyslipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia. It is used in combination with changes in diet in adults with hypertriglyceridemia ≥ 150 mg/dL. Further, it is often required to be used with a statin (maximally-tolerated dose). The most common side effects are musculoskeletal pain, peripheral edema (swelling of legs and hands), atrial fibrillation, and arthralgia (joint pain). Other common side effects include bleeding, constipation, gout, and rash. It is made from the omega−3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗外代谢组学，也称为“代谢足迹”，是对细胞外代谢物的研究，是代谢组学的一个子领域。虽然用于分析代谢物的相同分析方法也适用于外代谢组学，包括液相色谱质谱法 (LC-MS)、核磁共振 (NMR) 和气相色谱-质谱法 (GC-MS)，但外代谢物的分析带来了特定的挑战，并且最常见的重点是研究生物系统对外源代谢物库的转化。通常，这些实验是通过比较两个或多个时间点的代谢物来进行的，例如，废培养基与未接种/对照培养基；这种方法可以区分野生型酵母和酵母突变体之间的不同生理状态。
Exometabolomics, also known as 'metabolic footprinting', is the study of extracellular metabolites and is a sub-field of metabolomics. While the same analytical approaches used for profiling metabolites apply to exometabolomics, including liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), analysis of exometabolites provides specific challenges and is most commonly focused on investigation of the transformations of exogenous metabolite pools by biological systems. Typically, these experiments are performed by comparing metabolites at two or more time points, for example, spent vs. uninoculated/control culture media; this approach can differentiate different physiological states of wild-type yeast and between yeast mutants.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗快速平行蛋白水解 (FASTpp) 是一种通过测量哪些蛋白质部分抵抗快速蛋白水解消化来确定蛋白质热稳定性的方法。
Fast parallel proteolysis (FASTpp) is a method to determine the thermostability of proteins by measuring which fraction of protein resists rapid proteolytic digestion.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗G蛋白偶联受体(GPCR)，也称为七次跨膜结构域受体、7TM受体、七螺旋受体、蛇形受体和G蛋白连接受体(GPLR)，形成一大类进化相关的蛋白质，它们是细胞表面受体，可检测细胞外的分子并激活细胞反应。它们与 G 蛋白结合。它们以氨基酸残基的六个环（三个与配体分子相互作用的胞外环、三个与G蛋白相互作用的胞内环、一个N端胞外区和一个C端胞内区）的形式穿过细胞膜七次，这就是为什么它们有时被称为七次跨膜受体。
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-(pass)-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptors, and G protein-linked receptors (GPLR), form a large group of evolutionarily related proteins that are cell surface receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate cellular responses. They are coupled with G proteins. They pass through the cell membrane seven times in the form of six loops (three extracellular loops interacting with ligand molecules, three intracellular loops interacting with G proteins, an N-terminal extracellular region and a C-terminal intracellular region) of amino acid residues, which is why they are sometimes referred to as seven-transmembrane receptors.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗气体信号分子是在生物体、组织或细胞内部（内源性）合成的或由生物体、组织或细胞从外部（例如，从大气或水圈，如氧气的情况）接收的气体分子，并且用于传递诱导生物体、组织或细胞中某些生理或生化变化的化学信号。该术语适用于例如氧气、二氧化碳、二氧化硫、一氧化二氮、氰化氢、氨、甲烷、氢气、乙烯等。选择的气体信号分子充当神经递质并被称为气体递质。这些包括一氧化氮、一氧化碳和硫化氢。从历史上看，气体和生理效应的研究被归类为人为的。下面概述了每种气体信号分子的生物学作用。
Gaseous signaling molecules are gaseous molecules that are either synthesized internally (endogenously) in the organism, tissue or cell or are received by the organism, tissue or cell from outside (say, from the atmosphere or hydrosphere, as in the case of oxygen) and that are used to transmit chemical signals which induce certain physiological or biochemical changes in the organism, tissue or cell. The term is applied to, for example, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, methane, hydrogen, ethylene, etc. Select gaseous signaling molecules behave as neurotransmitters and are called gasotransmitters. These include nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Historically, the study of gases and physiological effects was categorized under factitious airs. The biological roles of each of the gaseous signaling molecules are outlined below.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗异源双链体分析 (HDA) 是自 1992 年以来用于检测 DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）点突变的生物化学方法。异源双链体是具有一个或多个错配对的 dsDNA 分子，而同源双链体是完美配对的 dsDNA。这种分析方法依赖于异源双链体相对于同源双链体 DNA 表现出较低的迁移率这一事实。异源双链体在不同的DNA等位基因之间形成。在野生型和突变体扩增DNA的混合物中，突变型等位基因中形成异源双链体，野生型等位基因中形成同源双链体。根据 DNA 突变的类型和程度，异源双链体有两种类型。小的缺失或插入产生凸出型异源双链体，该异源双链体是稳定的并通过电子显微镜验证。
Heteroduplex analysis (HDA) is a method in biochemistry used to detect point mutations in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) since 1992. Heteroduplexes are dsDNA molecules that have one or more mismatched pairs, on the other hand homoduplexes are dsDNA which are perfectly paired. This method of analysis depend up on the fact that heteroduplexes shows reduced mobility relative to the homoduplex DNA. heteroduplexes are formed between different DNA alleles. In a mixture of wild-type and mutant amplified DNA, heteroduplexes are formed in mutant alleles and homoduplexes are formed in wild-type alleles. There are two types of heteroduplexes based on type and extent of mutation in the DNA. Small deletions or insertion create bulge-type heteroduplexes which is stable and is verified by electron microscope.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗组蛋白单氨酰化是指翻译后修饰，其中单胺（即多巴胺、血清素、组胺）通过转酰胺基作用共价连接到组蛋白 H3 的谷氨酰胺残基位置 5 (Gln5)。一般来说，单胺化是指涉及单胺的所有翻译后修饰；然而，这些反应根据它们描述的单个单胺反应物进一步分类（即多巴胺酰化、血清酰化、组胺酰化）。迄今为止，组蛋白 H3 是已知唯一进行单氨酰化修饰的组蛋白，并且仅报道了组蛋白 H3（以下简称 H3Q5）的谷氨酰胺位置 5 (Gln5) 的此类修饰。因此，组蛋白单氨酰化目前是指单胺与组蛋白 H3 5 位 (Gln5) 上的谷氨酰胺共价添加。
Histone monoaminylation refers to the post-translational modification in which monoamines (ie., dopamine, serotonin, histamine) are covalently attached to glutamine residue position 5 (Gln5) of histone H3 via transamidation. In general, monoaminylation refers to the overall class of post-translational modifications involving monoamines; however, these reactions are further classified by the individual monoamine reactant they describe (ie., dopaminylation, serotonylation, histaminylation). To date, histone H3 is the only histone protein known to undergo monoaminylation modifications, and such modifications have only been reported for glutamine position 5 (Gln5) of histone H3 (hereafter referred to as H3Q5). Thus, histone monoaminylation currently refers to the covalent addition of monoamines to glutamine at position 5 (Gln5) of histone H3.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗DNA 固有荧光是 DNA 吸收紫外线 (UV) 辐射时直接发出的荧光。它与荧光标记形成鲜明对比，荧光标记要么简单地结合到 DNA 上，要么共价连接到 DNA 上，广泛应用于生物应用；此类标记可以是化学修饰的，而不是天然存在的核碱基。 20 世纪 60 年代，通过研究低温玻璃中的核酸，发现了内在的 DNA 荧光。自 21 世纪初以来，人们正在通过复杂的光谱技术在室温下研究流体溶液中核酸的微弱发射，使用飞秒激光脉冲作为紫外线源，并跟踪发射光从飞秒到纳秒的演变。特定实验方案的制定对于获得可靠的结果至关重要。
Intrinsic DNA fluorescence is the fluorescence emitted directly by DNA when it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contrasts to that stemming from fluorescent labels that are either simply bound to DNA or covalently attached to it, widely used in biological applications; such labels may be chemically modified, not naturally occurring, nucleobases. The intrinsic DNA fluorescence was discovered in the 1960s by studying nucleic acids in low temperature glasses. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the much weaker emission of nucleic acids in fluid solutions is being studied at room temperature by means sophisticated spectroscopic techniques, using as UV source femtosecond laser pulses, and following the evolution of the emitted light from femtoseconds to nanoseconds. The development of specific experimental protocols has been crucial for obtaining reliable results.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗毒性作用模式是一组常见的生理和行为迹象，表征一种不良生物反应。作用模式不应与作用机制相混淆，作用机制是指给定作用模式背后的生化过程。毒性作用模式是生态毒理学和水生毒理学中重要且广泛使用的工具，因为它们根据毒性作用类型对毒物或污染物进行分类。毒性作用模式有两种主要类型：非特异性作用毒物和特异性作用毒物。非特异性作用毒物是指产生麻醉作用的毒物，而特异性作用毒物是非麻醉性且在特定靶位点产生特定作用的毒物。
A mode of toxic action is a common set of physiological and behavioral signs that characterize a type of adverse biological response. A mode of action should not be confused with mechanism of action, which refer to the biochemical processes underlying a given mode of action. Modes of toxic action are important, widely used tools in ecotoxicology and aquatic toxicology because they classify toxicants or pollutants according to their type of toxic action. There are two major types of modes of toxic action: non-specific acting toxicants and specific acting toxicants. Non-specific acting toxicants are those that produce narcosis, while specific acting toxicants are those that are non-narcotic and that produce a specific action at a specific target site.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗血浆蛋白结合是指药物与血浆中的血液蛋白结合的程度。药物的功效可能会受到其结合程度的影响。药物的结合越少，它穿过或扩散穿过细胞膜的效率就越高。药物结合的常见血液蛋白有人血清白蛋白、脂蛋白、糖蛋白以及 α、β、γ 球蛋白。
Plasma protein binding refers to the degree to which medications attach to blood proteins within the blood plasma. A drug's efficacy may be affected by the degree to which it binds. The less bound a drug is, the more efficiently it can traverse or diffuse through cell membranes. Common blood proteins that drugs bind to are human serum albumin, lipoprotein, glycoprotein, and α, β‚ and γ globulins.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质吸附是指蛋白质对固体表面的粘附。这种现象是食品加工行业的一个重要问题，特别是在牛奶加工以及葡萄酒和啤酒生产中。过度吸附或蛋白质污染可能会导致健康和卫生问题，因为吸附的蛋白质很难清洁并且可能含有细菌，就像生物膜中的情况一样。如果吸附的材料干扰巴氏灭菌等加工步骤，产品质量可能会受到不利影响。然而，在某些情况下，蛋白质吸附可用于提高食品质量，例如葡萄酒的澄清。
Protein adsorption refers to the adhesion of proteins to solid surfaces. This phenomenon is an important issue in the food processing industry, particularly in milk processing and wine and beer making. Excessive adsorption, or protein fouling, can lead to health and sanitation issues, as the adsorbed protein is very difficult to clean and can harbor bacteria, as is the case in biofilms. Product quality can be adversely affected if the adsorbed material interferes with processing steps, like pasteurization. However, in some cases protein adsorption is used to improve food quality, as is the case in fining of wines.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质精氨酸磷酸酶（PAPs），也称为磷酸精氨酸磷酸酶，是一种催化蛋白质中磷酸精氨酸残基去磷酸化的酶。蛋白磷酸酶 (PP) 是“强制异聚体”，由连接到非催化亚基的两个最大催化亚基组成。精氨酸修饰是革兰氏阳性细菌中的翻译后蛋白质修饰。 McsB 和 YwIE 最近被鉴定为枯草芽孢杆菌 (B. subtilis) 中的磷酸化酶。 YwIE 被认为是一种蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸酶，McsB 是一种酪氨酸激酶，但 Elsholz 等人在 2012 年提出了这一点。结果表明，McsB 是一种蛋白质-精氨酸-激酶 (PAK)，YwlE 是一种磷酸酶-精氨酸-磷酸酶 (PAP)。许多蛋白质依靠蛋白磷酸酶活性来调节其稳定性、定位以及与其他蛋白质的相互作用。
Protein Arginine Phosphatase (PAPs), also known as Phosphoarginine Phosphatase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the dephosphorylation of phosphoarginine residues in proteins. Protein phosphatases (PPs) are "obligatory heteromers" made up of two maximum catalytic subunits attached to a non-catalytic subunit. Arginine modification is a post-translational protein modification in gram-positive bacteria. McsB and YwIE were recently identified as phosphorylating enzymes in Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis). YwIE was thought to be a protein-tyrosine-phosphatase, and McsB a tyrosine-kinase, however in 2012 Elsholz et al. showed that McsB is a protein-arginine-kinase (PAK) and YwlE is a phosphatase-arginine-phosphatase (PAP). Many proteins rely on protein phosphatase activity for regulating their stability, localization, and interaction with other proteins.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质工程是通过设计和生产非天然多肽（通常通过改变自然界中发现的氨基酸序列）来开发有用或有价值的蛋白质的过程。这是一门年轻的学科，在理解蛋白质折叠和识别蛋白质设计原理方面进行了大量研究。它已被用来改善许多工业催化酶的功能。这也是一个产品和服务市场，预计到 2017 年价值将达到 1680 亿美元。蛋白质工程有两种一般策略：合理的蛋白质设计和定向进化。这些方法并不相互排斥；研究人员通常会同时应用两者。未来，对蛋白质结构和功能的更详细了解以及高通量筛选的进步可能会极大地扩展蛋白质工程的能力。
Protein engineering is the process of developing useful or valuable proteins through the design and production of unnatural polypeptides, often by altering amino acid sequences found in nature. It is a young discipline, with much research taking place into the understanding of protein folding and recognition for protein design principles. It has been used to improve the function of many enzymes for industrial catalysis. It is also a product and services market, with an estimated value of $168 billion by 2017. There are two general strategies for protein engineering: rational protein design and directed evolution. These methods are not mutually exclusive; researchers will often apply both. In the future, more detailed knowledge of protein structure and function, and advances in high-throughput screening, may greatly expand the abilities of protein engineering.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质模拟物是模仿某些蛋白质特征（例如形状、结合特性或酶活性）的分子。虽然在概念上与模拟短肽序列或二级结构的肽模拟物相关，但蛋白质模拟物概括了三级结构。这可能涉及整个蛋白质结构域或其片段的模拟。蛋白质模拟方法的范围可以从完全非生物支架到特定的主链和侧链修饰。
Proteomimetics are molecules that mimic certain protein characteristics such as shape, binding properties or enzymatic activity. While conceptually linked to peptidomimetics which mimic short peptide sequences or secondary structures, proteomimetics recapitulate tertiary structures. This can involve the mimicry of entire protein domains or fragments thereof. Proteomimetic approaches can range from entirely abiotic scaffolds to specific main chain and side chain-modifications.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗假酶是催化缺陷（通常无活性）的酶的变体，这意味着它们很少或没有酶催化作用。人们相信它们存在于生命王国的所有主要酶家族中，具有重要的信号传导和代谢功能，其中许多功能现在才被人们所认识。假酶的分析变得越来越重要，特别是当基因组的生物信息学分析揭示了它们的普遍性时。它们在代谢和信号传导途径中的重要调节功能（有时与疾病相关）也为活性酶、兼职蛋白质的非催化功能、蛋白质在不同细胞角色中的重新利用（蛋白质兼职）提供了新的线索。他们还提出了使用小分子和药物来靶向和解释细胞信号传导机制的新方法。
Pseudoenzymes are variants of enzymes that are catalytically-deficient (usually inactive), meaning that they perform little or no enzyme catalysis. They are believed to be represented in all major enzyme families in the kingdoms of life, where they have important signaling and metabolic functions, many of which are only now coming to light. Pseudoenzymes are becoming increasingly important to analyse, especially as the bioinformatic analysis of genomes reveals their ubiquity. Their important regulatory and sometimes disease-associated functions in metabolic and signalling pathways are also shedding new light on the non-catalytic functions of active enzymes, of moonlighting proteins, the re-purposing of proteins in distinct cellular roles (Protein moonlighting). They are also suggesting new ways to target and interpret cellular signalling mechanisms using small molecules and drugs.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗假激酶是蛋白激酶的催化缺陷假酶变体，存在于生命王国的所有激酶组中。假激酶具有生理（信号转导）和病理生理功能。
Pseudokinases are catalytically-deficient pseudoenzyme variants of protein kinases that are represented in all kinomes across the kingdoms of life. Pseudokinases have both physiological (signal transduction) and pathophysiological functions.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗脉动分泌是在多种细胞和组织类型中观察到的一种生化现象，其中化学产物以规则的时间模式分泌。观察到以这种方式释放的最常见的细胞产物是细胞间信号分子，例如激素或神经递质。脉冲式分泌的激素的例子包括胰岛素、促甲状腺激素、TRH、促性腺激素释放激素(GnRH)和生长激素(GH)。在神经系统中，可以在中枢模式发生器的振荡活动中观察到脉动。在心脏中，起搏器能够以脉动方式工作和分泌。脉动分泌模式对于许多激素的功能至关重要，以维持发育和繁殖等基本生命过程所需的微妙的稳态平衡。
Pulsatile secretion is a biochemical phenomenon observed in a wide variety of cell and tissue types, in which chemical products are secreted in a regular temporal pattern. The most common cellular products observed to be released in this manner are intercellular signaling molecules such as hormones or neurotransmitters. Examples of hormones that are secreted pulsatilely include insulin, thyrotropin, TRH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and growth hormone (GH). In the nervous system, pulsatility is observed in oscillatory activity from central pattern generators. In the heart, pacemakers are able to work and secrete in a pulsatile manner. A pulsatile secretion pattern is critical to the function of many hormones in order to maintain the delicate homeostatic balance necessary for essential life processes, such as development and reproduction.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗嘌呤核苷酸循环是蛋白质代谢中需要氨基酸天冬氨酸和谷氨酸的代谢途径。该循环用于调节腺嘌呤核苷酸的水平，其中产生氨和富马酸。 AMP 转化为 IMP 和副产品氨。 IMP 转化为 S-AMP（腺苷琥珀酸），然后转化为 AMP 和副产物富马酸盐。当富马酸进入克雷布斯循环，然后进入电子传递链时，通过氧化磷酸化继续产生 ATP（能量）。 Lowenstein 首先描述了该途径，并概述了其在氨基酸分解代谢以及通过糖酵解和克雷布斯循环调节通量等过程中的重要性。当 ATP 储库较低（ADP > ATP）时，剧烈肌肉收缩后，腺苷酸激酶（肌激酶）反应会产生 AMP。
The Purine Nucleotide Cycle is a metabolic pathway in protein metabolism requiring the amino acids aspartate and glutamate. The cycle is used to regulate the levels of adenine nucleotides, in which ammonia and fumarate are generated. AMP converts into IMP and the byproduct ammonia. IMP converts to S-AMP (adenylosuccinate), which then converts to AMP and the byproduct fumarate. The fumarate goes on to produce ATP (energy) via oxidative phosphorylation as it enters the Krebs cycle and then the electron transport chain. Lowenstein first described this pathway and outlined its importance in processes including amino acid catabolism and regulation of flux through glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. AMP is produced after strenuous muscle contraction when the ATP reservoir is low (ADP > ATP) by the adenylate kinase (myokinase) reaction.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗腐烂是死亡的第五阶段，继尸苍白、尸肝、尸尸、尸僵之后。这个过程指的是动物死后尸体的分解。从广义上讲，它可以被视为蛋白质的分解，组织之间的凝聚力的最终破坏以及大多数器官的液化。这是由于有机物被细菌或真菌消化分解，释放出气体渗入人体组织，导致组织器官的恶化。腐败发生的大致时间取决于多种因素。影响腐烂速度的内部因素包括死亡时的年龄、身体的整体结构和状况、死亡原因以及死前或死后发生的外伤。
Putrefaction is the fifth stage of death, following pallor mortis, livor mortis, algor mortis, and rigor mortis. This process references the breaking down of a body of an animal post-mortem. In broad terms, it can be viewed as the decomposition of proteins, and the eventual breakdown of the cohesiveness between tissues, and the liquefaction of most organs. This is caused by the decomposition of organic matter by bacterial or fungal digestion, which causes the release of gases that infiltrate the body's tissues, and leads to the deterioration of the tissues and organs. The approximate time it takes putrefaction to occur is dependent on various factors. Internal factors that affect the rate of putrefaction include the age at which death has occurred, the overall structure and condition of the body, the cause of death, and external injuries arising before or after death.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗QTY Code 是一种设计方法，可将本质上不溶于水的膜蛋白转化为具有水溶性的变体，同时保留其结构和功能。
The QTY Code is a design method to transform membrane proteins that are intrinsically insoluble in water into variants with water solubility, while retaining their structure and function.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗放射合成是理论上生物体从电离辐射中捕获和代谢能量，类似于光合作用。早在 1956 年，俄罗斯微生物学家 S. I. Kuznetsov 就提出了电离辐射代谢的理论。从 20 世纪 90 年代开始，切尔诺贝利核电站的研究人员在反应堆室的墙壁和周围土壤中发现了约 200 种明显具有放射性营养的真菌，这些真菌含有黑色素。这种“黑化”真菌也在营养贫乏、暴露于高强度紫外线辐射的高海拔地区被发现。根据乌克兰的研究结果，纽约叶史瓦大学阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦医学院的一个美国团队开始对黑色素和黑色化真菌进行辐射实验。
Radiosynthesis is the theorized capture and metabolism, by living organisms, of energy from ionizing radiation, analogously to photosynthesis. Metabolism of ionizing radiation was theorized as early as 1956 by the Russian microbiologist S. I. Kuznetsov. Beginning in the 1990s, researchers at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant uncovered some 200 species of apparently radiotrophic fungi containing the pigment melanin on the walls of the reactor room and in the surrounding soil. Such "melanized" fungi have also been discovered in nutrient-poor, high-altitude areas which are exposed to high levels of ultraviolet radiation. Following the Ukrainian results, an American team at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University in New York began experimenting with radiation exposure of melanin and melanized fungi.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗术语“ramogen”是指生物因子，通常是生长因子或其他蛋白质，其导致发育中的生物细胞或组织以树状方式分枝。 Ramogenic 分子是在人体各处发现的分支促进分子。简史 该术语最初是在 Davies 和 Davey 撰写的一篇关于肾脏发育的文章中首次创造的（来自拉丁语 ramus = 分支，希腊语 genesis = 创造）（Pediatr Nephrol. 1999 Aug;13(6):535-41）。在文章中，Davies 和 Davy 描述了肾脏中存在的“ramogens”，即神经胶质细胞系衍生的神经营养因子、neurturin 和 persephin。该术语现已在有关生物结构分支的技术文献中广泛使用。功能 ramogen 是一种生化信号，能够产生生理分支。
The term ramogen refers to a biological factor, typically a growth factor or other protein, that causes a developing biological cell or tissue to branch in a tree-like manner. Ramogenic molecules are branch promoting molecules found throughout the human body. Brief History The term was first coined (from the Latin ramus = branch and the Greek genesis = creation) in an article about kidney development by Davies and Davey (Pediatr Nephrol. 1999 Aug;13(6):535-41). In the article, Davies and Davy describe the existence of "ramogens" in the kidney as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factors, neurturin and persephin. The term has now passed into general use in the technical literature concerned with branching of biological structures. Function A ramogen is a biochemical signal that enables the creation of a physiological branch.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗重复相关非 AUG 翻译或 RAN 翻译是真核细胞中可能发生的一种不规则 mRNA 翻译模式。
Repeat Associated Non-AUG translation, or RAN translation, is an irregular mode of mRNA translation that can occur in eukaryotic cells.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗视黄醇摄取受体 STRA6 是人类中由 STRA6 基因（“视黄酸 6 刺激”的缩写）编码的蛋白质。 STRA6 是视黄醇结合蛋白的跨膜细胞表面受体。由于 STRA6 与蛋白质结合的视黄醇（维生素 A 的一种形式）结合，因此 STRA6 有时被称为维生素 A 受体。然而，它不应该与视黄酸受体家族混淆，视黄酸受体家族是与类视黄醇信号传导有关的主要核受体。 STRA6 的不同之处在于它是膜转运蛋白和细胞表面受体，特别是细胞因子受体。 STRA6 主要被认为是视黄醇结合蛋白的受体，并且与将视黄醇转运到眼睛（维生素 A）等特定部位有关。
Receptor for retinol uptake STRA6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the STRA6 gene (short for "Stimulated by Retinoic Acid 6"). STRA6 is a transmembrane cell-surface receptor for retinol-binding protein. Since STRA6 binds with protein-bound retinol, which is a form of vitamin A, STRA6 is sometimes referred to as a Vitamin A receptor. However, it shouldn't confused with the family of retinoic acid receptors, which are the primary nuclear receptors involved with retinoid signaling. STRA6 is different in that it is a membrane transporter and a cell surface receptor, and in particular a cytokine receptor. STRA6 is primarily known as the receptor for retinol binding protein and for its relevance in the transport of retinol to specific sites such as the eye (Vitamin A).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗受体理论是应用受体模型来解释药物行为。药理学受体模型的出现早于对受体的准确认识许多年。约翰·纽波特·兰利 (John Newport Langley) 和保罗·埃利希 (Paul Ehrlich) 在 20 世纪初提出了受体可以介导药物作用的概念。 Alfred Joseph Clark 是第一个量化药物诱导的生物反应（特别是 f 介导的受体激活）的人。到目前为止，几乎所有受体功能的定量理论模型都集中在配体门控离子通道和G蛋白偶联受体上。
Receptor theory is the application of receptor models to explain drug behavior. Pharmacological receptor models preceded accurate knowledge of receptors by many years. John Newport Langley and Paul Ehrlich introduced the concept that receptors can mediate drug action at the beginning of the 20th century. Alfred Joseph Clark was the first to quantify drug-induced biological responses (specifically, f-mediated receptor activation). So far, nearly all of the quantitative theoretical modelling of receptor function has centred on ligand-gated ion channels and G protein-coupled receptors.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗基于重组腺相关病毒 (rAAV) 的基因组工程是一个以使用重组 AAV 载体为中心的基因组编辑平台，该载体能够将 DNA 序列插入、删除或替换到活哺乳动物细胞的基因组中。该技术建立在 Mario Capecchi 和 Oliver Smithies 获得诺贝尔奖的发现之上，即同源重组 (HR)（一种天然的高保真 DNA 修复机制）可用于在小鼠中进行精确的基因组改变。 rAAV 介导的基因组编辑提高了该技术的效率，允许在任何预先建立的分化的人类细胞系中进行基因组工程，与小鼠 ES 细胞相比，人类细胞系的 HR 率较低。该技术已广泛用于工程人类细胞系以生成同基因人类疾病模型。
Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) based genome engineering is a genome editing platform centered on the use of recombinant AAV vectors that enables insertion, deletion or substitution of DNA sequences into the genomes of live mammalian cells. The technique builds on Mario Capecchi and Oliver Smithies' Nobel Prize–winning discovery that homologous recombination (HR), a natural hi-fidelity DNA repair mechanism, can be harnessed to perform precise genome alterations in mice. rAAV mediated genome-editing improves the efficiency of this technique to permit genome engineering in any pre-established and differentiated human cell line, which, in contrast to mouse ES cells, have low rates of HR. The technique has been widely adopted for use in engineering human cell lines to generate isogenic human disease models.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗还原应力（RS）被定义为尽管存在完整的氧化和还原系统，但还原当量的异常积累。氧化还原反应涉及电子从还原剂（还原剂）转移到氧化剂（氧化剂），氧化还原对负责大部分细胞电子流。 RS 是一种与已知生物氧化还原对（如 GSH/GSSG、NADP+/NADPH 和 NAD+/NADH）形式的活性氧 (ROS) 相比，存在更多还原当量的状态。还原应激与氧化应激相对应，氧化应激中电子受体预计大部分减少。还原应激可能源自允许细胞防御促氧化条件的内在信号。
Reductive stress (RS) is defined as an abnormal accumulation of reducing equivalents despite being in the presence of intact oxidation and reduction systems. A redox reaction involves the transfer of electrons from reducing agents (reductants) to oxidizing agents (oxidants) and redox couples are accountable for the majority of the cellular electron flow. RS is a state where there are more reducing equivalents compared to reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the form of known biological redox couples such as GSH/GSSG, NADP+/NADPH, and NAD+/NADH. Reductive stress is the counterpart to oxidative stress, where electron acceptors are expected to be mostly reduced. Reductive stress is likely derived from intrinsic signals that allow for the cellular defense against pro-oxidative conditions.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗强化脂质是其中一些脂肪酸在双键旁边含有氘的脂质分子。它们可通过减缓同位素对脂质过氧化的影响而产生的链式反应来保护活细胞。细胞和细胞器膜的脂质双层含有多不饱和脂肪酸（PUFA），是细胞和细胞器膜的关键成分。任何增加多不饱和脂肪酸氧化或阻碍其替换能力的过程都可能导致严重的疾病。相应地，使用强化脂质来阻止脂质过氧化的链式反应具有预防和治疗潜力。
Reinforced lipids are lipid molecules in which some of the fatty acids contain deuterium next to the double bonds. They can be used for the protection of living cells by slowing the chain reaction due to isotope effect on lipid peroxidation. The lipid bilayer of the cell and organelle membranes contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are key components of cell and organelle membranes. Any process that either increases oxidation of PUFAs or hinders their ability to be replaced can lead to serious disease. Correspondingly, use of reinforced lipids that stop the chain reaction of lipid peroxidation has preventive and therapeutic potential.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗逆转录酶是一种蛋白质复合物，已被证明对于将跨膜受体从内体回收到跨高尔基体网络 (TGN) 并直接返回质膜非常重要。逆转录酶及其相关蛋白的突变与阿尔茨海默病和帕金森病有关。 Retromer 是一种异五聚体复合物，在人类中由不太明确的膜相关分选连接蛋白二聚体（SNX1、SNX2、SNX5、SNX6）和包含 Vps26、Vps29 和 Vps35 的液泡蛋白分选 (Vps) 异三聚体组成。
Retromer is a complex of proteins that has been shown to be important in recycling transmembrane receptors from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and directly back to the plasma membrane. Mutations in retromer and its associated proteins have been linked to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Retromer is a heteropentameric complex, which in humans is composed of a less defined membrane-associated sorting nexin dimer (SNX1, SNX2, SNX5, SNX6), and a vacuolar protein sorting (Vps) heterotrimer containing Vps26, Vps29, and Vps35.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
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