航空航天Wind shear风切变（Wind shear/Windshear），又称风剪、风切，是指大气中在相对较短的距离内，风速和/或风向发生变化的现象。大气风切变通常分为垂直风切变和水平风切变。 风切变本身属于微尺度气象现象，发生距离极短，但它常与飑线、冷锋等中尺度或天气尺度的天气系统相伴随。这种现象常见于雷暴引起的微爆气流和下击暴流附近，也常见于锋面、低空急流（局部低空风速较大区域）、山脉附近、因晴空微风引发的辐射逆温层、建筑物、风力发电机以及帆船周围。风切变对飞机的操控有重大影响，是导致许多飞行事故的唯一原因或诱因。 除此之外，声音在大气中的传播也会受到风切变的影响。风切变会使声波前发生弯曲，导致在通常听不到声音的地方也能听到声音。此外，对流层内强烈的垂直风切变会抑制热带气旋的发展，但有助于将单一雷暴组织成生命周期更长的强对流天气。热风概念则阐明了不同高度的风速差异如何取决于水平温度差异，并解释了急流的存在。
Wind shear (; also written windshear), sometimes referred to as wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear. Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with a change in altitude. Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with a change in lateral position for a given altitude. Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms, fronts, areas of locally higher low-level winds referred to as low-level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines, and sailboats. Wind shear has significant effects on the control of an aircraft, and it has been the only or a contributing cause of many aircraft accidents.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗翘曲机翼（英语：wing warping）是由莱特兄弟发明的一种用于控制固定翼飞机滚转运动的系统。经由这一系统，飞行员可通过操纵滑轮与钢线扭曲机翼从而改变两侧升力，进而由升力差产生滚转力矩以帮助飞机保持平直飞行或进行转弯。在许多方面，通过弯曲纸飞机机翼后缘以助其平直飞行的方式与翘曲机翼十分相似。
Wing warping was an early system for lateral (roll) control of a fixed-wing aircraft or kite. The technique, used and patented by the Wright brothers, consisted of a system of pulleys and cables to twist the trailing edges of the wings in opposite directions. In many respects, this approach is similar to that used to trim the performance of a paper airplane by curling the paper at the back of its wings.
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查看内容许可 ↗气动外壳（Aeroshell）是一种刚性隔热外壳，主要帮助航天器在进入大气层时减速并免受大气阻力所产生高温高压和可能碎片的破坏。其主要部件包括位于前面的防热盾和后面的背罩。防热盾在航天器进入大气层时吸收航天器前方空气压缩产生的热量；背壳则承载着所运送的载荷及其它重要部件，如降落伞、火箭发动机和电子监测设备，如在下降过程中监测降落伞下方罩体方向的惯性测量单元。 它主要应用于太空任务中航天器的进入、下降和着陆过程（EDL）。首先，当航天器穿入地球大气层时，气动外壳会使航天器减速，隔热板吸收由此产生的摩擦高温。然后，在下降过程中，降落伞打开，隔热板被抛离，位于背罩中的火箭启动，以帮助航天器进一步减缓下降速度，安全气囊也会充气以缓冲降落撞击。航天器在第一次撞击后直接在行星表面反弹。最后，安全气囊放气坍缩，航天器上的着陆器罩瓣展开。在整个过程中，任务控制和航天器之间的通信通过连接在背罩和探测器上的低增益天线进行往返传输。在整个进入、下降和着陆阶段，特定音响声将被发回地球，以传达每一关键步骤是否已成功。 气动外为太空探测器的关键部件，是探测器完好降落到任何具有大气层天体表面所必需的，现已应用于所有将有效载荷返回地球的任务（如果将航天飞机隔热系统也视作气动外壳的话），以及所有登陆火星、金星、土卫六和（在最极端的情况下）到木星的伽利略号探测器任务。
An aeroshell is a rigid heat-shielded shell that helps decelerate and protects a spacecraft vehicle from pressure, heat, and possible debris created by drag during atmospheric entry. Its main components consist of a heat shield (the forebody) and a back shell. The heat shield absorbs heat caused by air compression in front of the spacecraft during its atmospheric entry. The back shell carries the load being delivered, along with important components such as a parachute, rocket engines, and monitoring electronics like an inertial measurement unit that monitors the orientation of the shell during parachute-slowed descent. Its purpose is used during the EDL, or Entry, Descent, and Landing, process of a spacecraft's flight. First, the aeroshell decelerates the spacecraft as it penetrates the planet's atmosphere and must necessarily dissipate the kinetic energy of the very high orbital speed. The heat shield absorbs some of this energy while much is also dissipated into the atmospheric gasses, mostly by radiation.
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查看内容许可 ↗风力发电机（也称风力涡轮机、风机、风力机）是一种将气流的动能转为机械能的装置，是风力发电厂的必要元素。此装置通常会接上发电机。风力发动机通过风力带动风车（大多采用3驱动）旋转，再通过增速机将旋转的速度提升，促使发电机发电。 风电涡轮机由机头、转体和尾翼组成，机头用来接受风力并通过机头转为电能，尾翼使始终对着来风的方向从而获得最大的风能，转体能使机头灵活地转动以实现尾翼调整方向的功能，机头的转子是永磁体，定子绕组切割磁力线产生电能。 与太阳能发电、水力发电、地热能发电、火力发电和燃气发电等发电方式相比，风力发电具有相对低的温室气体排放量、最少需水量和有利社会影响。
A wind turbine is a device that converts the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy. As of 2024, hundreds of thousands of large turbines, in installations known as wind farms, were generating over 1,136 gigawatts of power, with 117 GW added each year. Wind turbines are an increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy, and are used in many countries to lower energy costs and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. One study claimed that, as of 2009, wind had the "lowest relative greenhouse gas emissions, the least water consumption demands and the most favorable social impacts" compared to photovoltaic, hydro, geothermal, coal and gas energy sources. Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, with either horizontal or vertical axes, though horizontal is most common. Commercial power production horizontal-axis turbines usually have three blades, upwind of their towers.
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查看内容许可 ↗星系际旅行（英语：Intergalactic travel）是在星系间的空间旅行。由于在银河系和最近的星系之间都有相对无比巨大的距离，这样的旅行需要的技术远远超过恒星际旅行。 星系间的距离是恒星间距的大约一百万倍（6个数量级）。无论是否考虑人的寿命限制，进行此类星系间旅行的可行技术都远远超出了人类现时所掌握的能力，目前仅仅停留在高度理论化的假设和部分科幻小说题材的层面上。
Intergalactic travel is the hypothetical travel between galaxies. Because the Milky Way and its closest neighbors are separated by millions of light-years, any such venture would also require millions of years based on our current understanding of physics. The technology required to travel between galaxies is far beyond humanity's present capabilities, and currently only the subject of speculation, hypothesis, and science fiction.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗星际污染，又称正向污染，是一个假设中的概念，指人造宇宙飞船有意或无意对无菌行星体的污染。它被认为是直接泛种论的潜在形式。当前的国际协定对飞行器离开地球前的消毒有要求。
Interplanetary contamination refers to biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberate or unintentional. There are two types of interplanetary contamination: Forward contamination is the transfer of life and other forms of contamination from Earth to another celestial body. Back contamination is the introduction of extraterrestrial organisms and other forms of contamination into Earth's biosphere. It also covers infection of humans and human habitats in space and on other celestial bodies by extraterrestrial organisms, if such organisms exist. The main focus is on microbial life and on potentially invasive species. Non-biological forms of contamination have also been considered, including contamination of sensitive deposits (such as lunar polar ice deposits) of scientific interest. In the case of back contamination, multicellular life is thought unlikely but has not been ruled out. In the case of forward contamination, contamination by multicellular life (e.g.
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查看内容许可 ↗冬眠模式是太空探测器的一种操作模式，即当常规操作暂停很长一段时间，但预计会重启（与终止不同）的模式。在长时间和深空任务中，它可以节省电力或其他有限的资源，并延长任务寿命。该术语与电脑节能中使用的休眠模式基本相似。 Rosetta：研究彗星67P/楚留莫夫-格拉希门克彗星的任务，当它在前往交会地点的途中冒险靠近木星轨道时，为了保护有限的资源，它被置于冬眠状态31个月 。 新视野号：在前往冥王星的途中多次进入休眠模式，然后在前往古柏带天体( 486958) 天空的途中再次进入休眠模式。它的休眠模式提供了一定程度的健康和状态监测，偶尔也会醒来检查和校准仪器。 NASA的广域红外线巡天探测卫星任务：最初由该机构的天体物理部门负责红外全天巡天，2011年进入休眠状态，2013年再次苏醒，由行星科学部门进行小行星巡天。
Hibernation of spacecraft is an operating mode used when regular operations are suspended for an extended period of time but restarting is expected (unlike termination). On long duration and deep space missions it saves power or other limited resources and extends mission life. The term is substantially similar to the hibernation mode used in computer power saving. Rosetta, a mission to study comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (67P), was placed into hibernation for 31 months to conserve its limited resources when it ventured near the orbit of Jupiter while en route to its rendezvous. The New Horizons mission entered hibernation mode many times on its way to Pluto and then again while en route to the Kuiper belt object 486958 Arrokoth. Its hibernation mode provides some amount of health and status monitoring and occasional wake-ups to check and calibrate instruments.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗太空垃圾（英语：space debris或space junk），学术上也常称为空间碎片，是指在绕地球轨道上运行，但不具备任何用途的各种人造物体。这些物体小到固态火箭的燃烧残渣，大到在发射后被遗弃的多级火箭。它们有撞击其它航天器的风险，某些太空垃圾在返回大气层时也会对地面安全造成威胁。 由于太空垃圾以轨道速度运行，动能巨大（每秒7公里以上），若与它们相撞可能会严重损坏尚在运作的航天器，甚至威胁到宇航员在舱外活动时的生命安全。随着太空探索的推进，太空垃圾的数量逐年递增，所带来的问题日益严重，受到关注。
Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution, space waste, space trash, space garbage, or cosmic debris) are defunct human-made objects in space – principally in Earth orbit – which no longer serve a useful function. These include derelict spacecraft (nonfunctional spacecraft and abandoned launch vehicle stages), mission-related debris, and fragmentation debris from the breakup of derelict rocket bodies and spacecraft. In addition to derelict human-made objects left in orbit, space debris includes fragments from disintegration, erosion, or collisions; solidified liquids expelled from spacecraft; unburned particles from solid rocket motors; and even paint flecks. Space debris represents a risk to spacecraft. Space debris is typically a negative externality. It creates an external cost on others from the initial action to launch or use a spacecraft in near-Earth orbit, a cost that is typically not taken into account nor fully accounted for by the launcher or payload owner. Several spacecraft, both crewed and un-crewed, have been damaged or destroyed by space debris.
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查看内容许可 ↗采样返回（英语：Sample-return mission）是一种航天器飞行任务，其目的是从地球外地点（如月球）收集样本并将样品送回地球进行分析。采样返回任务可能只带回原子和分子，也可能带回如土壤和岩石等复杂物体。不过人们也担心将样本带回地球可能会危及地球本身。 截至2026年4月，人类已通过无人和载人任务从月球上采集了月球岩石样本；无人航天器已造访了维尔特二号彗星和小行星25143、小行星龙宫和小行星101955，并将样本带回地球；此外，无人任务起源号探测器还带回了太阳风样本。 除了样本返回任务外，人类还通过其他方式收集了来自三个已确定的非地球天体的样本：来自月球的月球陨石样本、来自火星的火星陨石样本以及来自灶神星的HED陨石样本。
A sample-return mission is a spacecraft mission to collect and return samples from an extraterrestrial location to Earth for analysis. Sample-return missions may bring back merely atoms and molecules or a deposit of complex compounds such as loose material and rocks. These samples may be obtained in a number of ways, such as soil and rock excavation or a collector array used for capturing particles of solar wind or cometary debris. Nonetheless, concerns have been raised that the return of such samples to planet Earth may endanger Earth itself. As of April 2026, samples of Moon rock from Earth's Moon have been collected by robotic and crewed missions; the comet Wild 2 and the asteroids 25143 Itokawa, 162173 Ryugu, and 101955 Bennu have been visited by robotic spacecraft which returned samples to Earth; and samples of the solar wind have been returned by the robotic Genesis mission.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗电动帆（英语：Electric sail、Electric solar wind sail，簡稱：E-Sail）是一种建议将太阳风作为动压来源的太空飞行器推进方式，其原理为为制造电场来改变太阳风质子的行进方向，进而推动太空载具移动。整个系统在2006年时由芬兰科学家派卡·鉴胡能所提出，并且于芬兰气象研究所内透过细电线所形成的磁场完成“模拟”电动帆之实验。之后欧洲联盟底下的研究机关也开始支持关于电动帆技术的研究计划，并且提供170万欧元来兴建专门研究电动帆关键技术的原型实验室。这项预计持续3年的研究计划共有5个国家参与，而欧洲联盟则将其评估为最高类组的研发内容。 透过太阳风行进的电动帆除了比传统的太阳能电池系统更为有效且便宜外，从长远发展来看也极有可能促使小行星资源的经济开发与应用。2013年时爱沙尼亚所研制的ESTCube-1计划测试电动帆工作原理的可行性，并且预计在2014年时由芬兰所发射的微型卫星阿尔托-1进行实际运用。
An electric sail (also known as an electric solar wind sail or an E-sail) is a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using the dynamic pressure of the solar wind as a source of thrust. It creates a "virtual" sail by using small wires to form an electric field that deflects solar wind protons and extracts their momentum. The idea was first conceptualised by Pekka Janhunen in 2006 at the Finnish Meteorological Institute.
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查看内容许可 ↗阿凡达航天飞机(梵语：अवतार )(Avatar "Aerobic Vehicle for Transatmospheric Hypersonic Aerospace TrAnspoRtation")是印度的航天飞机计划，2001年由印度国防研究开发组织设计概念，一个总部设在海德拉巴的CIM科技公司也参加了这个计划。原订计划中是一种全机体重复使用的太空载具，然而技术难点无法突破，现公布的模型比较类似美国和苏联航天飞机的小型版，机体位于火箭前端进入太空后抛弃火箭。 此概念与印度空间研究组织的可重复使用发射技术验证器（RLV-TD）无关。 原始概念是，阿凡达像普通飞机一样从机场上水准起飞其机身极长，类似将助推火箭纳入机身，但是较传统火箭尺寸还是小上许多，用涡轮风扇、冲压发动机和超音速燃料发动机的组合，达到10公里的巡航高度；然后在此高度上启动火箭发动机推入太空。在太空中完成任务后，离开轨道重新进入大气层，利用自身动力在普通机场上着陆。一架阿凡达能重复使用100次。其机身内建火箭能成功产生足推力的秘密在于火箭发动机所需要的21吨液氧将在最初1个小时大气层巡航过程中从大气中吸收并制造出来。在大气层中飞行时会吸进空气，然后把氧气分离出来并液化储存，由于前段飞行又是靠气动升力达到高空，所以不需要那么大的液态燃料槽。
Avatar (Sanskrit: अवतार, ISO: Avatāra; from "Aerobic Vehicle for Transatmospheric Hypersonic Aerospace TrAnspoRtation") is a concept study for a robotic single-stage reusable spaceplane capable of horizontal takeoff and landing, by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation. The mission concept is for low cost military and commercial satellite space launches. This spaceplane concept is unrelated to the Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) RLV Technology Demonstration Programme (RLV-TD).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗抽气循环是双组元推进剂火箭发动机的动力循环的一种，属于广义的开式循环。从火箭发动机主燃烧室抽取一部分热燃气引入涡轮驱动燃料/氧化剂泵，最后乏气直接排出。 NASA的J-2S火箭发动机，在1969年成功测试了抽气循环发动机。2013年, 蓝色起源（Blue Origin）公司的使用了抽气循环BE-3火箭发动机的新谢泼德火箭飞行测试成功。 抽气循环发动机的优点是结构简单，关闭也较为容易；缺点是起动相当复杂。而且循环涡轮必须耐受更高温度。
The combustion tap-off cycle is a power cycle of a bipropellant rocket engine. The cycle takes a small portion of hot exhaust gas from the rocket engine's combustion chamber and routes it through turbopump turbines to pump fuel before being exhausted (similar to the gas-generator cycle). Since fuel is exhausted, the tap-off cycle is considered an open-cycle engine. The cycle is comparable to a gas-generator cycle engine with turbines driven by main combustion chamber exhaust rather than a separate gas generator or preburner. The J-2S rocket engine, a cancelled engine developed by NASA, used the combustion tap-off cycle and was first successfully tested in 1969. By 2013, Blue Origin, with their New Shepard launch vehicle, had successfully flight-tested the BE-3 engine using a tap-off cycle. According to Blue Origin, the cycle is particularly suited to human spaceflight due to its simplicity, with only one combustion chamber and a less stressful engine shutdown process.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在航天器推进中，霍尔效应推进器（英文：Hall-effect thruster,HET）是一种离子推进器，其中推进器透过电场来加速。霍尔效应推进器利用磁场限制电子的轴向运动，然后利用它们使推进剂电离，有效地加速离子产生推力，并中和羽状流中的离子。霍尔效应推进器，因为奠基于埃德温·霍尔发现的霍尔效应，因此有时被称为霍尔推进器（Hall thrusters）或霍尔电流推进器（Hall-current thrusters）。霍尔效应推进器被归类为中等比冲（1,600 s）太空推进技术，自1960年代以来就受益于大量的理论和实验的研究。 霍尔推进器可使用多种推进剂进行操作，最常见的是氙气和氪气。其他可能的推进剂包括氩气、铋、碘、镁和锌。 霍尔推进器能够将排出的气体加速到10至80 km/s（1,000-8,000 s的特定冲量）之间的速度，大多数型号的工作速度为15至30 km/s（1,500-3,000 s的特定冲量）。产生的推力取决于功率水平，在1.35 kW的功率下运行的设备产生的推力约为83 mN。在实验室测试的高功率模型中已证明可达到高达5.4N的推力。使用氙气的霍尔推进器的功率水平已可达到100 kW。 截至2009年，霍尔效应推进器的输入功率范围为1.35至10千瓦，排气速度为每秒10–50公里，推力为40–600毫牛顿，效率为45％至60％。 霍尔效应推进器的应用包括控制轨道卫星的方向和位置，并用作中型太空飞行器的主要推进引擎。其中天宫空间站是已知宣布使用霍尔效应推进器来维持轨道高度的应用。
In spacecraft propulsion, a Hall-effect thruster (HET, sometimes referred to as a Hall thruster or Hall-current thruster) is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field. Based on the discovery by Edwin Hall, Hall-effect thrusters use a magnetic field to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate specific impulse (1,600 s) space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s. Hall thrusters operate on a variety of propellants, the most common being xenon and krypton. Other propellants of interest include argon, bismuth, iodine, magnesium, zinc and adamantane. Hall thrusters are able to accelerate their exhaust to speeds between 10 and 80 km/s (1,000–8,000 s specific impulse), with most models operating between 15 and 30 km/s. The thrust produced depends on the power level.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗膨胀循环（Expander cycle）是双元液体推进剂火箭发动机的一种动力循环，能提高燃料供给的效率。 在膨胀循环中，燃料燃烧前通常被主燃烧室的余热加热。当液态燃料通过在燃烧室壁里的冷却通道时，相变成气态。气态燃料产生的气压差推动涡轮泵转动。从而使推进剂高速进入推力室燃烧产生推力。 钟罩形的发动机由于没有足够的喷嘴面积来加热燃料来驱动涡轮机，因此单纯的膨胀循环发动机的推力最多300KN。更高的推力级可以靠燃料分流来达到，一部分燃料被分流到涡轮机和推力室的冷却通道，最后一起注入主燃烧室。瓦形发动机由于废气紧贴室壁，因此传热效率更高，可以产生更大的推力。两种类型的发动机都必须使用低温燃料，例如液氢、甲烷、丙烷等，这些燃料可以轻易达到沸点。 有些膨胀循环发动机使用燃气发生器来启动涡轮机，直到燃烧室和喷管加热的燃料产生的压力能独自启动涡轮机。
The expander cycle is a power cycle of a Bipropellant liquid rocket engine. In this cycle, the fuel is used to cool the engine's combustion chamber, picking up heat and changing phase. The now heated and gaseous fuel then powers the turbine that drives the engine's fuel and oxidizer pumps before being injected into the combustion chamber and burned. Because of the necessary phase change, the expander cycle is thrust limited by the square–cube law. When a bell-shaped nozzle is scaled, the nozzle surface area with which to heat the fuel increases as the square of the radius, but the volume of fuel to be heated increases as the cube of the radius. Thus beyond approximately 3,000 kilonewtons (670,000 pounds-force) of thrust, there is no longer enough nozzle area to heat enough fuel to drive the turbines and hence the fuel pumps. Higher thrust levels can be achieved using a bypass expander cycle where a portion of the fuel bypasses the turbine and or thrust chamber cooling passages and goes directly to the main chamber injector.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗燃气发生器循环（Gas-generator cycle），是双组元推进剂发动机的动力循环的一种。一小部分推进剂在燃气发生器中燃烧，产生燃气推动发动机的涡轮泵。由于燃气发生器的废气直接向外排放，因此属于一种开式循环。 燃气发生器循环大致相当于分级燃烧循环的简化版本，其优点是：燃气循环的涡轮不必应付向燃烧室排放废气时的反压力，因而涡轮机能的工作效率更高，提供给燃料的压力也更大，由此增加发动机的比冲。还有一个优点是燃气循环的涡轮机寿命更长更可靠。一些可重复使用发射系统使用这种动力循环有很大优势。 这种循环的主要劣势就在于效率的损失。由于燃料驱动涡轮产生的废气直接排出，未进入燃烧室做功，因此在净效率上，它反而不如同等级的分级燃烧循环。
The gas-generator cycle, also referred to as the GG cycle, is one of the most commonly used engine cycles in bipropellant liquid rocket engines. Propellant is burned in a gas generator (analogous to, but distinct from, a preburner in a staged combustion cycle) and the resulting hot gas is used to power the propellant pumps before being exhausted overboard and lost. Because of this loss, this type of engine is considered an open cycle (note other open cycles exist, e.g. the tap-off cycle or the expander bleed cycle). The gas generator cycle exhaust products pass over the turbine's wheel(s) first. Then they are expelled overboard. They can be expelled directly from the turbine, or are sometimes expelled into the nozzle (downstream from the throat) for both a small gain in efficiency, and can serve as film cooling. An advantage of this cycle is the high pressure drop available to the turbine (GG chamber pressure down to ambient) for extracting work from the drive gas; at the cost of needing to be sparing with the total mass flow.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗发射环是一个预想中的非火箭航天发射装置。通过利用一个架在距离地面80公里，长为2000公里的高架回路上的磁悬浮带，把负载发射到某个轨道上。整个带子在将负载抛射出地面后，向下并反向向的方向运动直到最初的发射端，这样构成一个环形回路。如果它放大到包围地球圆周便类似轨道环了。
A launch loop, or Lofstrom loop, is a proposed system for launching objects into orbit using a moving cable-like system situated inside a sheath attached to the Earth at two ends and suspended above the atmosphere in the middle. The design concept was published by Keith Lofstrom and describes an active structure maglev cable transport system that would be around 2,000 km (1,240 mi) long and maintained at an altitude of up to 80 km (50 mi). A launch loop would be held up at this altitude by the momentum of a belt that circulates around the structure. This circulation, in effect, transfers the weight of the structure onto a pair of magnetic bearings, one at each end, which support it. Launch loops are intended to achieve non-rocket spacelaunch of vehicles weighing 5 metric tons by electromagnetically accelerating them so that they are projected into Earth orbit or even beyond. This would be achieved by the flat part of the cable which forms an acceleration track above the atmosphere.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗空间电梯（英语：Space elevator），又称轨道电梯，由于顶部直达外空间，所以又名天梯，是一种低成本地将有效载荷从地球或其它星球的表面运输到空间的解决方案。
A space elevator, also referred to as a space bridge, star ladder, and orbital lift, is a proposed type of planet-to-space transportation system, often depicted in science fiction. The main component would be a cable (also called a tether) anchored to the surface and extending into space. An Earth-based space elevator would consist of a cable with one end attached to the surface near the equator and the other end attached to a counterweight in space beyond geostationary orbit (35,786 km altitude). The competing forces of gravity, which is stronger at the lower end, and the upward centrifugal force due to the Earth's rotation (i.e., the inertia of the counterweight that creates a tension on the space side), which is stronger at the upper end, would result in the cable being held up, under tension, and stationary over a single position on Earth. With the tether deployed, climbers (crawlers) could repeatedly climb up and down the tether by mechanical means, releasing their cargo to and from orbit.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗磁道炮（英语：railgun），也称轨道炮，是一种与单极电动机原理相似的电磁炮发射装置。磁道炮以电流产生的洛伦兹力加速载物，令其沿平行的导轨移动，并进入下一个轨道继续加速。 磁道炮的动力来源与其他武器不同，不使用炸药与推进剂，而是使用电磁力取得巨大动能来发射炮弹，传统军事用枪械的枪口初速无法超越每秒1000米，而磁道炮能达到每秒1700至3000米。另外磁道炮能避免传统炸药与弹头存储的风险，以及相对低廉的成本亦是磁道炮的优势。 除了军事应用，美国国家航空航天局也建议运用磁道炮将载荷送入外太空的地球同步轨道；然而在过程中将产生强大的G力，限制了载荷的使用。这种交通工具被称为质量投射器。
A railgun or rail gun, sometimes referred to as a rail cannon, is a linear motor device, typically designed as a ranged weapon, that uses electromagnetic force to launch high-velocity projectiles. The projectile normally does not contain explosives, instead relying on the projectile's high kinetic energy to inflict damage. The railgun uses a pair of parallel rail-shaped conductors (simply called rails), along which a sliding projectile called an armature is accelerated by the electromagnetic effects of a current that flows down one rail, into the armature and then back along the other rail. It is based on principles similar to those of the homopolar motor. As of 2020, railguns have been researched as weapons using electromagnetic forces to impart a very high kinetic energy to a projectile (e.g. dart ammunition) rather than using conventional propellants. While explosive-powered military guns cannot readily achieve a muzzle velocity of more than ≈2 km/s (Mach 5.9), railguns can readily exceed 3 km/s (Mach 8.8).
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗超音速燃烧冲压发动机（英语：Supersonic combustion Ramjet，缩写：Scramjet，中文简称超燃冲压发动机）是一种进气流速超过音速的航空用冲压发动机，属进气式喷气发动机的一类。超音速燃烧冲压发动机与一般的冲压发动机虽然都被使用在超音速飞行器上，但其关键的差异在于冲压发动机的进气在实际进入燃烧室之前，需经过适当的导流减速到次音速，但超音速燃烧冲压发动机的进气仍可保持在超音速状态，因此可达到更高的飞行速度。目前人类曾制造出、飞行速度最快的进气发动机飞行器——美国国家航空航天局所开发的X-43A极音速无人实验机，就是搭载超音速燃烧冲压发动机作为动力来源。
A scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow. As in ramjets, a scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to compress the incoming air forcefully before combustion (hence ramjet), but whereas a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion using shock cones, a scramjet has no shock cone and slows the airflow using shockwaves produced by its ignition source in place of a shock cone. This allows the scramjet to operate efficiently at extremely high speeds and does not require any moving parts. The operating regime and design of the scramjet results in great practical and technical challenges in their implementation. Because they can only operate in hypersonic airflow (>Mach 5), the aircraft to which they are attached must attain a hypersonic airspeed before the scramjet can be enabled.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗可重复使用发射系统（英语：reusable launch system），即可重复使用运载火箭，是指能够部分或全部回收火箭部件，并重复使用的发射系统。与之相对的则是传统的一次性发射载具。到目前为止，各国已飞行了几种可完全重用的亚轨道飞行系统和可部分重用的轨道飞行系统。 第一个可重用轨道飞行载具是航天飞机，但它无法实现“将发射成本降低至低于一次性运载系统”的目标。SpaceX首席执行官伊隆·马斯克表示，如果能够做到像飞机般可重复使用的火箭，那么进入太空的成本将减少至百分之一以下。 在21世纪，市场对于可重复使用发射系统的兴趣日益浓厚，使数种拥有此技术的太空飞行载具诞生。SpaceX具有可重用第一级助推器的猎鹰九号和重型猎鹰，太空飞船公司（The Spaceship Company）可重复使用的亚轨道航天器2号，和蓝色起源（Blue Origin）具有可回收第一级助推器和太空舱的亚轨道新谢泼德火箭。
A reusable launch vehicle has parts that can be recovered and reflown, while carrying payloads from the surface to outer space. Rocket stages are the most common launch vehicle parts aimed for reuse. Smaller parts such as fairings, boosters or rocket engines can also be reused, though reusable spacecraft may be launched on top of an expendable launch vehicle. Reusable launch vehicles do not need to make these parts for each launch, therefore reducing its launch cost significantly. However, these benefits can be diminished by the cost of recovery and refurbishment. Reusable launch vehicles may contain additional avionics and propellant, making them heavier than their expendable counterparts. Reused parts may need to enter the atmosphere and navigate through it, so they are often equipped with heat shields, grid fins, and other flight control surfaces. By modifying their shape, spaceplanes can leverage aviation mechanics to aid in its recovery, such as gliding or lift. In the atmosphere, parachutes or retrorockets may also be needed to slow it down further.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗等离子体推进发动机（Plasma propulsion engine）的较狭义的定义是以推进剂（为等离子体）中的电流或电势来加速推进剂，即不单独用电场加速推进剂者。与其区别的离子推进器则是使用高压电网或电极来加速推进剂。 此类推进器适合用于行星际旅行。
A plasma propulsion engine is a type of electric propulsion that generates thrust from a quasi-neutral plasma. This is in contrast with ion thruster engines, which generate thrust through extracting an ion current from the plasma source, which is then accelerated to high velocities using grids of anodes. These exist in many forms (see electric propulsion). However, in the scientific literature, the term "plasma thruster" sometimes encompasses thrusters usually designated as "ion engines". Plasma thrusters do not typically use high voltage grids or anodes/cathodes to accelerate the charged particles in the plasma, but rather use currents and potentials that are generated internally to accelerate the ions, resulting in a lower exhaust velocity given the lack of high accelerating voltages. This type of thruster has a number of advantages. The lack of high voltage grids of anodes removes a possible limiting element as a result of grid ion erosion.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗太空缆索是一种航天活动中的绳索，可以用于航天器的推进、动量交换、定姿、高度控制和组件连接。理论上，根据任务目标和高度，将太空缆索用于航天器推进可以比火箭发动机更加便宜。
Space tethers are long cables which can be used for propulsion, momentum exchange, stabilization and attitude control, or to maintain the relative positions of the components of a large, dispersed satellite/spacecraft sensor system. Depending on the mission objectives and altitude, spaceflight using this form of spacecraft propulsion is theorized to be significantly less expensive than spaceflight using rocket engines.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗太空拖船（英语：Spacecraft tugboat，spacecraft tug，space tugboat，space tug，satellite tugboat，satellite tug）是一种用于将太空货物从一个轨道转移到另一个具有不同能量特性的轨道的航天器。例如将航天器从低地球轨道(LEO) 移动到更高能量的轨道，如地球静止转移轨道、月球转移或逃逸轨道。 太空拖船通常代表一种可重复使用的航天飞行器。太空拖船包含提出或被建造出来的有包括 NASA 在 1970 年代的 STS 提案或俄罗斯的Parom ，有时太空拖船也表示一种消耗性多节火箭 ，例如Fregat 、 或Spaceflight Industries Sherpa 。
A space tug is a type of spacecraft used to transfer spaceborne cargo from one orbit to another orbit with different energy characteristics. The term can include expendable upper stages or spacecraft that are not necessarily a part of their launch vehicle. However, it can also refer to a spacecraft that transports payload already in space to another location in outer space, such as in the Space Transportation System concept. An example would be moving a spacecraft from a low Earth orbit (LEO) to a higher-energy orbit like a geostationary transfer orbit, a lunar transfer, or an escape trajectory. The term is often used to refer to reusable, space-based vehicles. Some previously proposed or built space tugs include the NASA 1970s STS proposal or the proposed Russian Parom, and has sometimes been used to refer to expendable upper stages, such as Fregat, Spaceflight Industries Sherpa, and the Inertial Upper Stage, when such stages are optional.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗反作用轮 (RW) 是连接到飞轮的电动机，当其转速改变时，通过角动量守恒引起相应的反向旋转。反作用轮只能绕其质心旋转；它无法从一个地方移动到另一个地方（平移力）。反作用轮主要由航天器用于三轴精细姿态控制，但也可用于快速翻滚。反作用轮不需要火箭或外部扭矩施加器，这减少了燃料所需的质量分数。它们提供了很高的指向精度，并且当航天器必须旋转很小的量时特别有用，例如保持望远镜指向恒星。
A reaction wheel (RW) is an electric motor attached to a flywheel, which, when its rotation speed is changed, causes a counter-rotation proportionately through conservation of angular momentum. A reaction wheel can rotate only around its center of mass; it is not capable of moving from one place to another (translational force). Reaction wheels are used primarily by spacecraft for three-axis fine attitude control, but can also be used for fast detumbling. Reaction wheels do not require rockets or external applicators of torque, which reduces the mass fraction needed for fuel. They provide a high pointing accuracy, and are particularly useful when the spacecraft must be rotated by very small amounts, such as keeping a telescope pointed at a star.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗北斗卫星导航系统（BDS；中文：北斗卫星导航系统；拼音：běidǒu wèixīng dǎoháng xìtǒng）是一个由中国国家航天局拥有和运营的卫星无线电导航系统。它可以向地球上或地球附近任何四颗或更多 BDS 卫星视线畅通无阻的 BDS 接收器提供地理位置和时间信息。它不需要用户传输任何数据，并且独立于任何电话或互联网接收而操作，尽管这些技术可以增强北斗定位信息的有用性。目前的北斗三号（第三代北斗）服务与俄罗斯的格洛纳斯卫星导航系统、欧洲的伽利略卫星导航系统和美国的GPS卫星导航系统一起提供全球范围的授时和导航服务。
The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS; Chinese: 北斗卫星导航系统; pinyin: běidǒu wèixīng dǎoháng xìtǒng) is a satellite-based radio navigation system owned and operated by the China National Space Administration. It provides geolocation and time information to a BDS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more BDS satellites. It does not require the user to transmit any data and operates independently of any telephonic or Internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the BDS positioning information. The current service, BeiDou-3 (third-generation BeiDou), provides full global coverage for timing and navigation, along with Russia's GLONASS, the European Galileo, and the US's GPS.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗卫星星座是一组作为一个系统一起工作的人造卫星。与单个卫星不同，星座可以提供永久的全球或近乎全球的覆盖，这样在任何时候，地球上的任何地方都至少有一颗卫星是可见的。卫星通常放置在一组互补的轨道平面中，并连接到全球分布的地面站。他们还可能使用卫星间通信。
A satellite constellation is a group of artificial satellites working together as a system. Unlike a single satellite, a constellation can provide permanent global or near-global coverage, such that at any time everywhere on Earth at least one satellite is visible. Satellites are typically placed in sets of complementary orbital planes and connect to globally distributed ground stations. They may also use inter-satellite communication.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在统计估计理论中，覆盖概率（或简称覆盖）是置信区间或置信区域包含感兴趣的真实值（参数）的概率。它可以定义为间隔围绕长期频率评估的真实值的实例的比例。在统计预测中，覆盖概率是预测区间包含随机变量的样本外值的概率。覆盖概率可以定义为间隔围绕样本外值（通过长期频率评估）的实例的比例。
In statistical estimation theory, the coverage probability, or coverage for short, is the probability that a confidence interval or confidence region will include the true value (parameter) of interest. It can be defined as the proportion of instances where the interval surrounds the true value as assessed by long-run frequency. In statistical prediction, the coverage probability is the probability that a prediction interval will include an out-of-sample value of the random variable. The coverage probability can be defined as the proportion of instances where the interval surrounds an out-of-sample value as assessed by long-run frequency.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗链路预算是对电信系统中通信信号从发射器通过无线电波、电缆、波导或光纤等通信信道到达接收器所经历的所有功率增益和损耗的核算。它是一个方程，给出了发射机功率的接收功率，经过由于传播而导致的发射信号衰减，以及天线增益、馈线和其他损耗，以及接收机或其通过的任何中继器中的信号放大。链路预算是一种设计辅助手段，在通信系统设计过程中进行计算，以确定接收功率，以确保以足够的信噪比清晰地接收信息。在大多数现实世界的系统中，必须在某种程度上估计损失，并且损失可能会有所不同。
A link budget is an accounting of all of the power gains and losses that a communication signal experiences in a telecommunication system, from a transmitter, through a communication channel such as radio waves, cables, waveguides, or optical fibers, to the receiver. It is an equation giving the received power from the transmitter power, after the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna gains and feedline and other losses, and amplification of the signal in the receiver or any repeaters it passes through. A link budget is a design aid, calculated during the design of a communication system to determine the received power, to ensure that the information is received intelligibly with an adequate signal-to-noise ratio. In most real-world systems, the losses must be estimated to some degree, and may vary.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在编码理论、电信工程和其他相关工程问题中，编码增益是与纠错码 (ECC) 一起使用时达到相同误码率 (BER) 水平所需的未编码系统和编码系统之间的信噪比 (SNR) 水平差异的度量。
In coding theory, telecommunications engineering and other related engineering problems, coding gain is the measure in the difference between the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) levels between the uncoded system and coded system required to reach the same bit error rate (BER) levels when used with the error correcting code (ECC).
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗遥测是在远程点现场收集测量值或其他数据，并将其自动传输到接收设备（电信）进行监控。这个词源自希腊词根tele（“遥远”）和metron（“测量”）。需要外部指令和数据来操作的系统需要遥测的对应物：远程命令。尽管该术语通常指无线数据传输机制（例如，使用无线电、超声波或红外系统），但它还涵盖通过其他介质（例如电话或计算机网络、光链路或其他有线通信（例如电力线载波））传输的数据。许多现代遥测系统利用 GSM 网络的低成本和普遍性，通过使用 SMS 接收和传输遥测数据。遥测仪是用于遥测的物理设备。
Telemetry is the in situ collection of measurements or other data at remote points and their automatic transmission to receiving equipment (telecommunication) for monitoring. The word is derived from the Greek roots tele, 'far off', and metron, 'measure'. Systems that need external instructions and data to operate require the counterpart of telemetry: telecommand. Although the term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g., using radio, ultrasonic, or infrared systems), it also encompasses data transferred over other media such as a telephone or computer network, optical link or other wired communications like power line carriers. Many modern telemetry systems take advantage of the low cost and ubiquity of GSM networks by using SMS to receive and transmit telemetry data. A telemeter is a physical device used in telemetry.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
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