航空航天Space rendezvous空间交会指两个航天器，通常其中一个是空间站，抵达同一个轨道，并且距离非常接近（目视距离）时的轨道操纵。 空间交会要求两个航天器保持非常精确相等的轨道速度，才能保持两者间的固定距离。会合后未必会进行对接，也就是两者接合在一起使两者能互连。 空间交会的技术也能用于使航天器降落在重力微弱的天体上。例如要登陆火星的卫星，必须让航天器与火卫保持一样的轨道速度，接下来的下降步骤也与空间对接类似。
A space rendezvous () is a set of orbital maneuvers during which two spacecraft, one of which is often a space station, arrive at the same orbit and approach to a very close distance (e.g. within visual contact). Rendezvous requires a precise match of the orbital velocities and position vectors of the two spacecraft, allowing them to remain at a constant distance through orbital station-keeping. Rendezvous may or may not be followed by docking or berthing, procedures which bring the spacecraft into physical contact and create a link between them. The same rendezvous technique can be used for spacecraft "landing" on natural objects with a weak gravitational field, e.g. landing on one of the Martian moons would require the same matching of orbital velocities, followed by a "descent" that shares some similarities with docking.
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查看内容许可 ↗比起角动量，在天体力学中更常使用比角动量（英语：specific angular momentum）的概念。此物理量常以 h {\displaystyle \mathbf {h} } 或 h → {\displaystyle {\vec {h}}} ，但亦有书籍以 k {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} } 表示。
In celestial mechanics, the specific relative angular momentum (often denoted h → {\displaystyle {\vec {h}}} or h {\displaystyle \mathbf {h} } ) of a body is the angular momentum of that body divided by its mass. In the case of two orbiting bodies it is the vector product of their relative position and relative linear momentum, divided by the mass of the body in question. Specific relative angular momentum plays a pivotal role in the analysis of the two-body problem, as it remains constant for a given orbit under ideal conditions. "Specific" in this context indicates angular momentum per unit mass. The SI unit for specific relative angular momentum is square meter per second.
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查看内容许可 ↗电动式推进是指利用电力或磁场作为航天器的动力。这系统大多采用加速电离子的技术。 比冲越高代表效率越好，亦即可以用相同质量的燃料产生更多的动量。因为电动发动机比化学燃料火箭有更高的排气速度，所以比化学燃料火箭消耗更少燃料，但由于能源所限，其推力会比化学燃料火箭弱得多。虽然电动助推器的推力较少，但推力却可维持一段很长的时间。经过长时间后，电动发动机能加速到一个相当可观的速度，因此电动发动机比化学燃料火箭更适合于深太空任务。 目前，电动式推进发展已相当成熟，已广泛应用于各种太空任务上。俄罗斯的卫星已经采用电动推进有几十年。到2019年，在太阳系运行的500多个航天器采用电动推进系统。其系统除了作为它们的主要动力外，亦会用作固定航天器在轨道上及轨道提升等功能。而日后所发展出电动发动机更可产生每秒100公里的速度增量（Δv）。虽然这速度能使航天器（且是核能驱动）前往至太阳系外围的星球，却还不足以进行星际间的穿梭。理论上，电动式推进如能搭配外部能源（透过激光方式传送动力）运作，是有可能进行星际穿梭。由于电动式推进产生的推力不够强，所以并不适合用于火箭从地球发射上太空的过程。
Spacecraft electric propulsion encompasses spacecraft propulsion systems that use electric energy to accelerate and expel propellant, generating thrust through electric or magnetic fields. Their principal advantage over chemical rockets is much higher specific impulse, meaning greater propellant efficiency, but the limited electrical power available aboard spacecraft yields much lower thrust, making electric propulsion unsuitable for launch from Earth's surface and better suited to long-duration in-space maneuvers. The main families of spacecraft electric propulsion include electrostatic devices such as gridded ion engines, Hall-effect thrusters, and colloid thrusters; electromagnetic devices such as pulsed plasma thrusters, magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters, and pulsed inductive thrusters; and electrothermal devices such as resistojets and arcjets. Radio-frequency and electron cyclotron resonance ion engines form a further subclass that avoids physical electrode contact with the propellant plasma. Electric propulsion concepts date to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's 1911 writings and Robert H.
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查看内容许可 ↗航线是船舶或航空器在两个地点之间的固定移动路线，其中水上运输在适航水体上所常用的航行路线叫做航道，而空中运输常用的飞行路线则称为飞行航线。航线的使用包括货运、客运、观光和科学考察，其中以前两者为主。在经过第三国领空或者海域的时候，因为涉及到主权的问题，通常不允许运输工具有任何偏离航线的移动。 航线的形成往往是因为两地之间的贸易所促成的。比如大航海时代和殖民时代开启的原因之一就是因为新崛起的奥斯曼帝国控制了通往远东的丝绸之路，欧洲人为了绕过中东贸易路线的限制所以试图用航海寻找替代路线来获取当时欧洲所需的香料和茶叶等货品，在意外发现新大陆后开始与欧洲本土之间贩卖劫获的资源和人口（奴隶和廉价劳工）因而建立了三角贸易，随后各个西欧航海国之间的贸易竞争带来了以港口为节点的全球性殖民地扩张。
A satellite ground track or satellite ground trace is the path on the surface of a planet directly below a satellite's trajectory. It is also known as a suborbital track or subsatellite track, and is the vertical projection of the satellite's orbit onto the surface of the Earth (or whatever body the satellite is orbiting). A satellite ground track may be thought of as a path along the Earth's surface that traces the movement of an imaginary line between the satellite and the center of the Earth. In other words, the ground track is the set of points at which the satellite will pass directly overhead, or cross the zenith, in the frame of reference of a ground observer. The ground track of a satellite can take a number of different forms, depending on the values of the orbital elements, parameters that define the size, shape, and orientation of the satellite's orbit.
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查看内容许可 ↗空气动力学（英语：Aerodynamics），是流体力学与气体动力学的一个分支，主要研究物体在空气中运动时所产生的各种力。空气动力学与气体动力学常常混用，但后者研究的气体不局限于空气。 空气动力学为流体力学在工程上的应用力学，特别讨论在马赫数大于0.3的流场情形。 空气动力学因为讨论的状况接近真实流体，考虑了真实流体的黏滞性、可压缩性、三维运动等特点，所以得到的计算方程式比较复杂，通常为非线性的偏微分方程式形式。这种方程在绝大多数的情况下都难以求得解析解的，加之早期计算技术还比较落后，所以当时大多是以实验的方式来求得所需的数据。 随着计算机技术的迅速发展，使用计算机进行大量数值运算来求解空气动力学方程式成为可能。利用数值法以及计算流体力学方法，可以求出非线性偏微分方程的数值解，得到所需要的各种数据，从而省去了大量的实验成本。由于数学模型的不断完善以及计算机计算能力的不断提高，现在已经可以采用电脑模拟流场的方式来取代部分空气动力学实验。
Aerodynamics (from Ancient Greek ἀήρ (aḗr) 'air' and δυναμική (dunamikḗ) 'dynamics') is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dynamics and its subfield of gas dynamics, and is an important domain of study in aeronautics. The term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the modern sense in the eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag were recorded much earlier. Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Otto Lilienthal in 1891.
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查看内容许可 ↗同步轨道是指在轨道上运行的物体（通常是卫星），其公转周期与所环绕物体（通常是行星）的平均旋转周期不仅相同，并且其运行方向也一致。
A synchronous orbit is an orbit in which an orbiting body (usually a satellite) has a period equal to the average rotational period of the body being orbited (usually a planet), and in the same direction of rotation as that body.
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查看内容许可 ↗地月转移（英语：trans-lunar injection (TLI)）是月球探测器从地球出发，通过推进器加速，进而脱离地球引力，最终被月球引力捕获的过程。
A trans-lunar injection (TLI) is a propulsive maneuver used to send a spacecraft toward the Moon. Typical lunar transfer trajectories approximate Hohmann transfers, although low-energy transfers have also been used in some cases, as with the Hiten probe. For short duration missions without significant perturbations from sources outside the Earth-Moon system, a fast Hohmann transfer is typically more practical. A spacecraft performs TLI to begin a lunar transfer from a low circular parking orbit around Earth. The large TLI burn, usually performed by a chemical rocket engine, increases the spacecraft's velocity, changing its orbit from a circular low Earth orbit to a highly eccentric orbit. The mission phase following TLI – while the spacecraft is flying passively towards the moon under its own momentum and influenced by terrestrial and lunar gravity – is called translunar coast. As the spacecraft begins coasting on the lunar transfer arc, its trajectory approximates an elliptical orbit about the Earth with an apogee near to the radius of the Moon's orbit.
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查看内容许可 ↗齐奥尔科夫斯基火箭方程 （英语：Tsiolkovsky rocket equation） 是俄国火箭专家康斯坦丁·齐奥尔科夫斯基（俄语：Константин Эдуардович Циолковский， 波兰语：Konstanty Ciołkowski， 英语：Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky）独自推导的火箭推动原理，该原理是现代空间飞行器的基础原理。 该方程以经典力学为基础，仅适用于宏观低速条件，如果火箭速度接近光速，则需要使用相对论火箭方程。
The classical rocket equation, Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation is a mathematical equation that describes the motion of vehicles that follow the basic principle of a rocket: a device that can apply acceleration to itself using thrust by expelling part of its mass with high velocity and can thereby move due to the conservation of momentum. The equation is named after—and usually credited to—Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who derived and published the formula in 1903, though William Moore had outlined it as early as 1810 and elaborated further in a book published in 1813. Robert Goddard and Hermann Oberth also obtained the same result in 1912 and 1920, respectively. All four of them reasoned and derived the same model independently.
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查看内容许可 ↗空气轴承（Air Bearing）又称气浮轴承，是一种轴承，它通过向轴腔内注入压缩空气，使轴承悬浮。它的最大优点为转速高、振动小和使轴承寿命延长。目前最大的制造商是"西风"(Westwind)公司。与Westwind不同，位于德国慕尼黑的AeroLas公司，在掌握了空气轴承技术之后，并没有把自己的产品目录化和标准化，而是按照客户具体要求设计气浮系统。
Air bearings (also known as aerostatic or aerodynamic bearings) are bearings that use a thin film of pressurized gas to provide a low friction load-bearing interface between surfaces. The two surfaces do not touch, thus avoiding the problems of friction, wear, particulates, and lubricant handling associated with conventional bearings, and air bearings offer distinct advantages in precision positioning, such as lacking backlash and static friction, as well as in high-speed applications. Spacecraft simulators now most often use air bearings, and 3D printers are now used to make air-bearing–based attitude simulators for CubeSat satellites. A differentiation is made between aerodynamic bearings, which establish the air cushion through the relative motion between static and moving parts, and aerostatic bearings, in which the pressure is being externally inserted. Gas bearings are mainly used in precision machinery tools (measuring and processing machines) and high-speed machines (spindle, small-scale turbomachinery, precision gyroscopes).
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查看内容许可 ↗本条目中，矢量与标量分别用粗体与斜体显示。例如，位置矢量通常用 r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} \,\!} 表示；而其大小则用 r {\displaystyle r\,\!} 来表示。检验变数或场变数的标记的后面没有单撇号“ ′ {\displaystyle '\,\!} ”；源变数的标记的后面有单撇号“ ′ {\displaystyle '\,\!} ”。 在静磁学里，毕奥-萨伐尔定律（Biot-Savart Law）以方程描述，电流在其周围所产生的磁场。采用静磁近似，当电流缓慢地随时间而改变时（例如当载流导线缓慢地移动时），这定律成立，磁场与电流的大小、方向、距离有关。毕奥-萨伐尔定律是以法国物理学者让-巴蒂斯特·毕奥与费利克斯·萨伐尔命名。
In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the Biot–Savart law ( or ) is an equation describing the magnetic field generated by a constant electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The Biot–Savart law is fundamental to magnetostatics. It is valid in the magnetostatic approximation and consistent with both Ampère's circuital law and Gauss's law for magnetism. When magnetostatics does not apply, the Biot–Savart law should be replaced by Jefimenko's equations. The law is named after Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart, who discovered this relationship in 1820.
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查看内容许可 ↗空气动力学（英语：Aerodynamics）主要研究物体穿过空气时产生的各种力及物体运动的模式（空气动力学与气体动力学常常混用，但后者研究的气体不局限于空气）。 而汽车的空气动力学（英语：Automotive Aerodynamics）则是指四轮的汽车的空气动力学研究（不包括四轮以下的汽车的原因是英语“Automotive”只是指四轮的汽车）。这门科学主要用于减少汽车的空气阻力、风噪声，减低噪音排放，和消除汽车高速运动时产生对汽车有负面影响的上升力，及空气对车身控制有不良影响的因素。由于空气动力学是流体力学与气体动力学的一个分支，所以空气被认为是流体的一种。对于赛车而言，空气动力套件能为车体产生下压力，从而提升赛车的抓地力和过弯能力。
Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road vehicles. Its main goals are reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise emission, and preventing undesired lift forces and other causes of aerodynamic instability at high speeds. Air is also considered a fluid in this case. For some classes of racing vehicles, it may also be important to produce downforce to improve traction and thus cornering abilities.
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查看内容许可 ↗翼型（airfoil）或称翼剖面，是指机翼、风帆、螺旋桨、旋翼、涡轮的横截面形状。翼型可以改变力的方向，例如可以把平行方向的推力转换为升力，或是将水平方向的旋转力矩转换为垂直方向的推力。 翼型的升力主要来自于其形状和迎角（也称作攻角），有恰当迎角的翼型会对来流产生扰动，由此产生一个与扰动相反方向的力，也就是气动力。气动力可以被分解为升力和阻力，与来流方向垂直的合力称之为升力，与来流方向平行的的合力称之为阻力。大多数翼型需要在正的迎角下才产生升力，但是有弯度翼型在迎角为0 ° 的情况下也能产生升力。来流在受到扰动后，在翼型表面附近出现了弯曲的流线，因此在翼型的两个表面产生了不同的压力。根据伯努利定律，可以根据上下表面的流速差来计算翼型的升力。在引入环量的概念后，根据库塔-儒可夫斯基定理也可以计算出翼型的升力。
An airfoil (American English) or aerofoil (British English) is a streamlined body that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag. Wings, sails and propeller blades are examples of airfoils. Foils which work in a similar way submerged in water are called hydrofoils. When oriented at a suitable angle, a solid body moving through a fluid deflects the passing fluid, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as an aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two components: lift (perpendicular to the freestream velocity) and drag (parallel to the freestream velocity). The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack. Most foil shapes require a positive angle of attack to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack. Airfoils have different shapes for different speeds: those for subsonic flight have a rounded leading edge, while those for supersonic flight tend to be slimmer. All have a sharp trailing edge.
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查看内容许可 ↗空速是指航空器相对于空气的速度。根据测量方法上的差异，空速可分为指示空速、校准空速、当量空速、真实空速等几种。
In aviation, airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air it is flying through (which itself is usually moving relative to the ground due to wind). In contrast, the ground speed is the speed of an aircraft with respect to the surface of the Earth (whether over land or presumed-stationary water). It is difficult to measure the exact airspeed of the aircraft (true airspeed), but other measures of airspeed, such as indicated airspeed and Mach number give useful information about the capabilities and limitations of airplane performance. The common measures of airspeed are: Indicated airspeed (IAS), what is read on an airspeed gauge connected to a pitot-static system. Calibrated airspeed (CAS), indicated airspeed adjusted for pitot system position and installation error. True airspeed (TAS) is the actual speed the airplane is moving through the air. When combined with aircraft direction, wind speed and direction, it can be used to calculate ground speed and direction. Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is true airspeed times root density ratio.
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查看内容许可 ↗飞行力学（Flight mechanics）是描述航空器于空中运动方式及力学的学科，属于空气动力学。航空器可以是固定翼（例如滑翔机、飞机）或是旋转翼（例如直升机）。依照ICAO 9110号文件的定义，航空器（Aeroplane，美国称为Airplane）是“一个有动力、比空气重的飞行器，因为其表面飞行力学的作用而产生升力，而升力在特定飞行条件下为大致固定的值”。
Aircraft flight mechanics are relevant to fixed wing (gliders, aeroplanes) and rotary wing (helicopters) aircraft. An aeroplane (airplane in US usage), is defined in ICAO defined by bala from Erode Document 9110 as, "a power-driven heavier than air aircraft, deriving its lift chiefly from aerodynamic reactions on surface which remain fixed under given conditions of flight". Note that this definition excludes both dirigibles (because they derive lift from buoyancy rather than from airflow over surfaces), and ballistic rockets (because their lifting force is typically derived directly and entirely from near-vertical thrust). Technically, both of these could be said to experience "flight mechanics" in the more general sense of physical forces acting on a body moving through air; but they operate very differently, and are normally outside the scope of this term.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗```wiki 在弹道学中，物体的弹道系数（BC、Cb）是衡量其在飞行中克服空气阻力能力的物理量。 它与负加速度成反比：数值越高表示负加速度越低——物体所受阻力相对于其质量越小。BC 可用单位公斤力每平方米（kgf/m2）或磅每平方英寸（lb/in2）表示（其中 1 lb/in2 对应 703.06957829636 kgf/m2）。
In ballistics, the ballistic coefficient (BC, Cb) of a body is a measure of its ability to overcome air resistance in flight. It is inversely proportional to the negative acceleration: a high number indicates a low negative acceleration—the drag on the body is small in proportion to its mass. BC can be expressed with the units kilogram-force per square meter (kgf/m2) or pounds per square inch (lb/in2) (where 1 lb/in2 corresponds to 703.06957829636 kgf/m2).
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗高空风力发电机（Airborne wind turbine）是一种没有支柱做为结构支撑的设计概念，对比一般风力发电机，其优势是不必制作大型的塔形建筑、集电环与设计偏航机构，就能有效利用更高转速的高海拔的风能。当然，其技术的困难点在于：悬挂机具的安全性、如何使机具在高风速或强烈风暴之下维持在高空的运作、如何使电能传回地面和其是否会影响航空航行等。 依安装位置区别高空风力发电机的种类，用于高海拔的称为高空风力发电机（high-altitude wind power）、低海拔的称为侧风风筝发电机（crosswind kite power）。当发电机组起飞后，电缆将传递能量到地面，或者使用其他能量传递方法（微波或激光）接收能量。其中，风筝式与直升机式的发电机容易因为风力不足而掉落，所以有研究团队提出了气球式或飞船式的风力发电。但高空式的风力发电机很容易受环境影响，像是闪电与暴风雨，所以必须对于发电机组进行回收。一些计划为了能够达到更高的放飞高度，而需要长程电缆，但此必须安装于禁航区内以免影响航班。 直至2022年，经常性运行的商业高空风力发电项目仍然罕见。
An airborne wind turbine is a design concept for a wind turbine with a rotor supported in the air without a tower, thus benefiting from the higher velocity and persistence of wind at high altitudes, while avoiding the expense of tower construction, or the need for slip rings or yaw mechanism. An electrical generator may be on the ground or airborne. Challenges include safely suspending and maintaining turbines hundreds of meters off the ground in high winds and storms, transferring the harvested and/or generated power back to earth, and interference with aviation. Airborne wind turbines may operate in low or high altitudes; they are part of a wider class of Airborne Wind Energy Systems (AWES) addressed by high-altitude wind power and crosswind kite power. When the generator is on the ground, then the tethered aircraft need not carry the generator mass or have a conductive tether. When the generator is aloft, then a conductive tether would be used to transmit energy to the ground or used aloft or beamed to receivers using microwave or laser.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗抗激波体（英语：anti-shock body），又叫“库奇曼萝卜”（英语：Küchemann carrot），是一种位于飞行器空气动力表面前缘或后缘的部件，用于降低飞行器跨音速飞行时的波阻。 根据面积律，如果飞行器横截面积沿纵轴变化平滑，可以有效降低波阻。抗激波体便是以此为目的设计的。 其最初由苏联中央空气流体动力学研究院发明，并用于1952年首飞的图-16轰炸机。抗激波体在图-16上还起到起落架整流罩的作用。除苏联外，美国国家航空航天局的理查德·惠特科姆与英国皇家航空研究院的迪特里希·库奇曼也于1950年代初发展了相关理论，后来美国康维尔990、荷兰福克100等飞机上的抗激波体便源于相关研究。
An anti-shock body is a streamlined pod positioned on the upper surface of a wing to reduce wave drag while travelling at transonic speeds (Mach 0.8–1.0), which includes the typical cruising range of conventional jet airliners. Also known as a Whitcomb body, Küchemann carrot or speed bump, it improves area rule distribution. The anti-shock, or shock, body was one of a number of ways of implementing what was then the recently developed area rule. Another was fuselage shaping.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗飞行中的航空器可以在三个维度上自由旋转：偏航轴，使机头可左右旋转的，上下穿越重心的一个轴；俯仰轴，使机头可以向上或向下旋转的，横穿机翼的轴；和横滚轴，可使飞机围绕其滚动，横穿机鼻到机尾的轴。这三个主轴也可以称为垂直轴、横轴和纵轴。这些轴随航空器移动，并且随着航空器相对于地球旋转。 这些旋转是由围绕主轴的扭矩（或力矩）产生的。在航空器上，这些旋转可以通过改变控制面来产生，这会改变围绕飞行器重心的净空气动力分布。升降舵（水平尾翼上的活动襟翼）提供俯仰，垂直尾翼上的方向舵产生偏航，而副翼（机翼上反向移动的襟翼）产生滚动。 当 1950 年代末设计第一艘载人航天器时，这些定义也相应地地应用于航天器。在航天器上，运动通常由反应控制系统产生，该系统由小型火箭推进器组成，用于在航天器上施加不对称推力使之旋转。
An aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions: yaw, nose left or right about an axis running up and down; pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to wing; and roll, rotation about an axis running from nose to tail. The yaw, pitch, and roll axes are alternatively designated as vertical, lateral (or transverse), and longitudinal respectively. These axes move with the vehicle and rotate relative to the Earth along with the craft. These definitions were analogously applied to spacecraft when the first crewed spacecraft were designed in the late 1950s. These rotations are produced by torques (or moments) about the principal axes. On an aircraft, these are intentionally produced by means of moving control surfaces, which vary the distribution of the net aerodynamic force about the vehicle's center of gravity. Elevators (moving flaps on the horizontal tail) produce pitch, a rudder on the vertical tail produces yaw, and ailerons (flaps on the wings that move in opposing directions) produce roll.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗航行角或称爬升角（flight path angle、angle of climb）是一个航空名词。它的意义为航空器对地面的爬升率。
In aerodynamics, climb gradient is the ratio between distance travelled over the ground and altitude gained, and is expressed as a percentage. The angle of climb can be defined as the angle between a horizontal plane representing the Earth's surface, and the actual flight path followed by the aircraft during its ascent. The speed of an aircraft type at which the angle of climb is largest is called VX. It is always slower than VY, the speed for the best rate of climb. As the latter gives the quickest way for gaining altitude levels, regardless of the distance covered during such a maneuver, it is more relevant to cruising. The maximum angle of climb on the other hand is where the aircraft gains the most altitude in a given distance, regardless of the time needed for the maneuver. This is important for clearing an obstacle, and therefore is the speed a pilot uses when executing a "short field" takeoff. VX increases with altitude, and VY decreases with altitude until they converge at the airplane's absolute ceiling.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗装置角（英语：Mounting Angle），又称入射角（英语：Angle of Incidence）。是机翼根部翼剖面的翼弦线与机身水平方向的夹角，与反角、掠角一样，除了某些特殊设计的机型，一般在飞机安装时就被决定了。 不只主翼，许多前翼、尾翼设计也都会带有装置角，如此一来，飞机不必达到水平控制面就可以有额外的作用力协助其稳定飞行。 附图为飞机侧视图，该飞机翼根弦线的延长线 ( 红线 ) 与机身俯仰轴线 ( 蓝线 ) 之间的夹角即为装置角。通用航空的机翼设计上通常会带有些微 ( 大约六度 ) 的装置角。请注意装置角与攻角不同，不应将两者混淆。
On fixed-wing aircraft, the angle of incidence (sometimes referred to as the mounting angle or setting angle) is the angle between the chord line of the wing where the wing is mounted to the fuselage, and a reference axis along the fuselage (often the direction of minimum drag, or where applicable, the longitudinal axis). The angle of incidence is fixed in the design of the aircraft, and with rare exceptions, cannot be varied in flight. The term can also be applied to horizontal surfaces in general (such as canards or horizontal stabilizers) for the angle they make relative the longitudinal axis of the fuselage. The figure to the right shows a side view of an airplane. The extended chord line of the wing root (red line) makes an angle with the longitudinal axis (roll axis) of the aircraft (blue line). Wings are typically mounted at a small positive angle of incidence, to allow the fuselage to have a low angle with the airflow in cruising flight. Angles of incidence of about 6° are common on most general aviation designs.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗康达效应（英语：Coandă effect）即附壁效应，又译宽德效应、柯恩达效应，指射流附着在凸面上的倾向。 当射流流过曲面时，流体（水流或气流）与它流过的物体表面之间有表面摩擦，近物体表面的流体流速会减缓，近面流体离开原本的流动方向，改为随着凸出的物体表面流动之倾向，并使周围远面流体逸入此一喷流中；流体流速的减缓和移动方向的改变（流线弯曲）使得喷流外界的压力（大气压力）大于喷流内侧和曲面交界处的压力，导致喷流依附在曲面壁流动。 喷流的附壁效应，会使曲面壁上的压力小于喷流外界的大气压力，产生向曲面壁的附壁吸力（Coandă force）。 “康达”指的是罗马尼亚发明家亨利·科安德。科安德意识到这种效应的潜在应用，并发明了一架特殊的飞机科安德-1910。
The Coandă effect ( or ) is the tendency of a fluid jet to stay attached to a surface of any form. Merriam-Webster describes it as "the tendency of a jet of fluid emerging from an orifice to follow an adjacent flat or curved surface and to entrain fluid from the surroundings so that a region of lower pressure develops." It is named after Romanian inventor Henri Coandă, who was the first to recognize the practical application of the phenomenon in aircraft design around 1910. It was first documented explicitly in two patents issued in 1936.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗可压缩流是一种气流，而且此类气流密度会出现显着变化。尽管所有气流都是可压缩的，但是当马赫数（流速与声速的比值）小于0.3时，因为速度造成的密度变化通常小于5%，此时气流会视为不可压缩流。 可压缩流的研究与高速飞机、喷气发动机、火箭发动机、高速进入行星大气、天然气管道、商业应用（例如喷砂处理）以及许多其他领域有关。
Compressible flow (or gas dynamics) is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with flows having significant changes in fluid density. While all flows are compressible, flows are usually treated as being incompressible when the Mach number (the ratio of the speed of the flow to the speed of sound) is smaller than 0.3 (since the density change due to velocity is about 5% in that case). The study of compressible flow is relevant to high-speed aircraft, jet engines, rocket motors, high-speed entry into a planetary atmosphere, gas pipelines, commercial applications such as abrasive blasting, and many other fields.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗克拉克Y翼型（英文:Clark Y）是一款经典的翼型，最大厚度11.7%，位于弦长28%处。最大弯度3.4%，位于42%弦长处。 1917年，德国哥廷根大学建成了一座能够以实际飞行的来流速度开展全尺寸翼型试验的风洞。通过大量试验，研究人员发现厚翼型较大的前缘半径可以获得更大的失速迎角，因此在失速前可产生比薄翼型更大的升力，据此推翻了“厚翼型阻力必然大于薄翼型”这一观点。 在后续研究中，诞生了著名的以“哥廷根”命名的系列翼型（如Göttingen398翼型与Göttingen387翼型）。1922年，V.E.克拉克对Göttingen398翼型进行了尝试性优化，成功得到了著名的Clark Y翼型，该翼型在当时成为了最受欢迎的翼型。
Clark Y is the name of a particular airfoil profile, widely used in general purpose aircraft designs, and much studied in aerodynamics over the years. The profile was designed in 1922 by Virginius E. Clark using thickness distribution of the German-developed Goettingen 398 airfoil. The airfoil has a thickness of 11.7 percent and is flat on the lower surface aft of 30 percent of chord. The flat bottom simplifies angle measurements on propellers, and makes for easy construction of wings. For many applications the Clark Y has been an adequate airfoil section; it gives reasonable overall performance in respect of its lift-to-drag ratio, and has gentle and relatively benign stall characteristics. The flat lower surface is not optimal from an aerodynamic perspective, and it is rarely used in modern designs. The Clark YH airfoil is similar but with a reflexed (turned up) trailing edge producing a more positive pitching moment reducing the horizontal tail load required to trim an aircraft.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗在空气动力学中，压缩升力指飞机利用超音速飞行产生的震波，造成底部压力增加来作为升力。如此一来，便能显著增加超音速/极音速飞行器的升力。压缩升力的现象在1956年，由克拉伦斯·西弗森 和 阿尔弗雷德·J·埃格斯在分析核弹头大气重返的异常表现时所发现。 压缩升力的基本概念非常简单：就像“快艇”在极高的速度下，“乘”在自己艏震波上，以降低阻力一样的概念。 然而此效应要应用在飞行器上更加困难，因为“波”唯有在超音速飞行下才会产生，且具有不小的倾斜角度。因此飞行器外形必须精确设计，才能充分利用这种效应。此外震波的角度随着速度不同会有极大的变化，若是想要在各个不同速度都能取得压缩升力，外形设计将是一大难题。 迄今为止试图应用压缩升力的飞机，唯一接近量产是1960年代的XB-70。整个计划中仅生产两架原型机便遭到取消，而原型机也从未投入实战，最后只成为了超音速的测试台。压缩升力降低XB-70约30%的诱导阻力 。 高超音速飞行并使用压缩升力的乘波体设计，各国一直以来都抱持极高兴趣。然而到目前为止，都仍停留在试验机的阶段。 如 波音X-51 (乘波体)，也应用压缩升力技术。
In aerodynamics, compression lift refers to the increased pressure under an aircraft that uses shock waves generated by its own supersonic flight to generate lift. This can lead to dramatic improvements in lift for supersonic/hypersonic aircraft. Clarence Syvertson and Alfred J. Eggers discovered this phenomenon in 1956 as they analyzed abnormalities at the reentry of nuclear warheads. The basic concept of compression lift is well known; "planing" boats reduce drag by "surfing" on their own bow wave in exactly the same fashion. Using this effect in aircraft is more difficult, however, because the "wake" is not generated until supersonic speeds are reached, and is highly angled. Aircraft have to be carefully shaped to take full advantage of this effect. In addition, the angle of the shock waves varies greatly with speed, making it even more difficult to design a craft that gains significant lift over a wide range of speeds.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗晴空乱流（英语：clear air turbulence，简写为CAT），又称“晴空湍流”，是晴空中几乎无法用肉眼或传统雷达的方式观察到此种乱流。然而，远距离的状况，一些使用光学原理运作的乱流侦测方式是可以侦测到这种乱流，包括闪烁计、多普勒效应光学雷达、及N-slit interferometer。 晴空乱流是因为不同速度的气团相遇而造成，晴空乱流多半没有云。 最可能造成晴空乱流的区域是在对流层较高处，约在海拔7,000至12,000米的高度，大约接近对流层顶。在有高速气流的区域常会出现晴空乱流，在较低海拔，靠近山的区域也容易出现。若有出现卷云，其造成晴空乱流的几率也很高。 晴空乱流会使飞机乘客乘坐时不适，偶尔会影响飞航安全。晴空乱流的频率已有增加，推测可能是全球暖化效应。在《自然气候变化》期刊中，雷丁大学的保罗·威廉斯（Paul William）及东英吉利亚大学的Manoj Joshi提出了若大气中的二氧化碳是工业革命前的二倍，中等到强烈的晴空乱流会较现在增加40%至170%。
In meteorology, clear-air turbulence (CAT) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any visual clues such as clouds, and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely different speeds meet. The atmospheric region most susceptible to CAT is the high troposphere at altitudes of around 7,000–12,000 m (23,000–39,000 ft) as it meets the tropopause. Here CAT is most frequently encountered in the regions of jet streams. At lower altitudes it may also occur near mountain ranges. Thin cirrus clouds can also indicate high probability of CAT. CAT can be hazardous to the comfort, and occasionally the safety, of air travelers, as the aircraft pilots often cannot see and anticipate such turbulences, and a sudden encounter can impart significant stress to the airframe. CAT in the jet stream is expected to become stronger and more frequent because of climate change, with transatlantic wintertime CAT increasing by 60% (light), 95% (moderate), and 150% (severe) by the time of CO2 doubling.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗阻流（Choked flow）也称为阻塞流，是流体动力学中，在可压缩流中的效应，其中的流体速度受到限制（受到阻塞），和文丘里效应效应有关。当特定压力及温度的流体经过管路突缩位置（例如拉伐尔喷管的喉部或是管路的阀门）到压力较低的环境下，其流体速度会增加。依初始在上游的次音速条件，依照质量守恒定律，流体在经过截面积较小的管路突缩位置时，其速度要增加。同时因为文丘里效应，在管路突缩位置的静压（以及对应密度）都要降低。若在上游压力及温度固定时，即使下游的压力降低，其质量流率也不再增加，此时的情形即称为阻塞流。 针对均质流体，在绝热过程下会发生阻塞流的情形，需要出口平面的速度到达音速时才会出现，也就是马赫数为1。在阻塞流时，只有增加上游流体的密度（以及阻塞点的流体密度）才能增加质量流率。 气体阻塞流的的质量流率和下游的压力无关，只和上游的温度及压力（及密度）有关，因此常用在许多工程应用中。在阻塞流的条件下，可以用阀或是校正过的孔口板来产生想要质量流率。
Choked flow is a compressible flow effect. The parameter that becomes "choked" or "limited" is the fluid velocity. Choked flow is a fluid dynamic condition associated with the Venturi effect. When a flowing fluid at a given pressure and temperature passes through a constriction (such as the throat of a convergent-divergent nozzle or a valve in a pipe) into a lower pressure environment the fluid velocity increases. At initially subsonic upstream conditions, the conservation of energy principle requires the fluid velocity to increase as it flows through the smaller cross-sectional area of the constriction. At the same time, the Venturi effect causes the static pressure, and therefore the density, to decrease at the constriction. Choked flow is a limiting condition where the mass flow cannot increase with a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment for a fixed upstream pressure and temperature.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗弓形激波，也称为分离激波或弓激波，是一种弯曲传播的扰动波，其特征是压力、温度和密度等参量突然、不连续的变化。当超音速流遇到一个物体时，就会产生这种现象，在该物体周围，流动的偏向角必需要高于附加斜激波的最大偏向角（参见分离准则 ）。随后，斜激波转变为弯曲的分离激波。弓激波通常在存在高速流动的偏转角时在钝体周围形成，因为钝体对其周围的流动施与了高偏转角。 弓形激波的热力学转化是非等熵的，并且激波的流速将从上游的超音速降低到下游的亚音速。
A bow shock, also called a detached shock or bowed normal shock, is a curved propagating disturbance wave characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous, change in pressure, temperature, and density. It occurs when a supersonic flow encounters a body, around which the necessary deviation angle of the flow is higher than the maximum achievable deviation angle for an attached oblique shock. Then, the oblique shock transforms in a curved detached shock wave. As bow shocks occur for high flow deflection angles, they are often seen forming around blunt bodies, because of the high deflection angle that the body impose to the flow around it. The thermodynamic transformation across a bow shock is non-isentropic and the shock decreases the flow velocity from supersonic velocity upstream to subsonic velocity downstream.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗SpaceX星舰（英语：SpaceX Starship，亦译作“星舟”），是由太空科技探索公司（SpaceX）开发的一种可完全复用的超重型运载火箭，于2017年9月伊隆·马斯克首次公布。星舰投入使用后将取代猎鹰9号、猎鹰重型火箭以及龙飞船等载具，执行近地轨道、地球同步轨道上的任务。除了近地轨道，星舰在轨道上加注燃料后，也可以完成地月转移以及登陆火星的任务。 SpaceX在2012年左右开始研发火星殖民系统，火箭使用的猛禽火箭发动机则在2016年开始测试。SpaceX在2018年3月开始制造BFR的首个火箭原型，伊隆·马斯克在一场发表会上并称为行星运输系统，之后宣布继续改进，在最后定型的发表会上，马斯克重新命名了BFR，他将第一级助推器称为SpaceX超级重型（Super Heavy），将第二级飞船称为SpaceX星舰飞船（Starship (spacecraft)）。以上计划中包含了可重复使用的运载火箭以及用于支持火箭快速发射、复用的地面基础设施，SpaceX还会研发可以在近地轨道进行在轨加注燃料的技术。作为超重型运载火箭，星舰的近地轨道回收运力可高达150公吨（330,000磅），全消耗运力高达200公吨（440,000磅）。马斯克同时表示其最初期望是在2022年发射载货版星舰去火星，然后在2024年执行载人计划。不过至2026年，SpaceX称已经把月球视为较务实的目标，改成地球卫星之间的火箭，但他强调行星版本的计划没有取消，只是研制的优先级会有所延后。 如今，SpaceX正在采用不锈钢来建造用于测试的一系列星舰原型，因为不锈钢的廉价与加工的便捷性，原型的建造变得十分迅速。2023年4月的SpaceX第一次星舰轨道试飞任务，使星舰超越太空发射系统，成为起飞推力最大的运载火箭，未来还将夺得土星5号最大运载能力火箭的头衔。SpaceX希望为原型搭建专门的生产流水线，这使得SpaceX可以在更高的频率下进行火箭测试并快速地从中发现问题，随后SpaceX就可以针对该问题迅速地做出改进。
Starship is a two-stage, fully reusable, super heavy-lift launch vehicle under development by American aerospace company SpaceX. Currently built and launched from Starbase in Texas, it is intended as the successor to the company's Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets, and is part of SpaceX's broader reusable launch system development program. If completed as designed, Starship would be the first fully reusable orbital rocket and have the highest payload capacity of any launch vehicle to date. As of September 28, 2026, Starship has launched 14 times, with 9 successful flights and 5 failures. The vehicle consists of two stages: the Super Heavy booster and the Starship spacecraft, both powered by Raptor engines burning liquid methane (the main component of natural gas) and liquid oxygen. Both stages are intended to return to the launch site and land vertically at the launch tower for potential reuse. Once in space, the Starship upper stage is intended to function as a standalone spacecraft capable of carrying crew and cargo.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗下压力是指车辆行驶时通过零部件让空气对车身产生向下方向的压力，从而抵消汽车行驶时受到的升力，这样轮胎可以紧贴在地面，抓地力更高，汽车行可以开得更快更稳定。F1赛车的扰流板就可以产生下压力。
Downforce is a downwards lift force created by the aerodynamic features of a vehicle. If the vehicle is a car, the purpose of downforce is to allow the car to travel faster by increasing the vertical force on the tires, thus creating more grip. If the vehicle is a fixed-wing aircraft, the purpose of the downforce on the horizontal stabilizer is to maintain longitudinal stability and allow the pilot to control the aircraft in pitch.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗外弹道是指抛射物（比如弹头、炮弹等）离开其发射装置（比如枪械和火炮的身管）后进行自由飞行时的运动轨迹，俗称的“弹道”一般就是专指外弹道。 外弹道学（external ballistics）则是弹道学中专门研究抛体在自由飞行部分的运动状态的学科，对于研究现实应用中非制导武器的精确度性能和瞄准操作有着重要作用。
External ballistics or exterior ballistics is the part of ballistics that deals with the behavior of a projectile in flight. It deals with projectiles under the influence of a gravitational field; it includes those powered and un-powered, guided and unguided, spin and fin stabilized, and flying through an atmosphere and in the vacuum of space. Gun-launched projectiles may be unpowered, deriving all their velocity from the propellant's ignition until the projectile exits the gun barrel. However, exterior ballistics analysis also deals with the trajectories of rocket-assisted gun-launched projectiles and gun-launched rockets and rockets that acquire all their trajectory velocity from the interior ballistics of their on-board propulsion system, either a rocket motor or air-breathing engine, both during their boost phase and after motor burnout. External ballistics is also concerned with the free-flight of other projectiles, such as balls, arrows etc.
来源、授权与使用说明
维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
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