结构生物学16S ribosomal RNA16S 核糖体 RNA（或 16S rRNA）是原核核糖体 (SSU rRNA) 30S 亚基的 RNA 成分。它与 Shine-Dalgarno 序列结合并提供大部分 SSU 结构。编码它的基因被称为 16S rRNA 基因，由于该基因区域的进化速度缓慢，因此可用于重建系统发育。 Carl Woese 和 George E. Fox 是 1977 年率先在系统发育学中使用 16S rRNA 的两位人士。单个细菌中可以存在 16S rRNA 基因的多个序列。描述符 16S 指的是这些核糖体亚基的大小，通过样品离心时它们沉积的速度间接反映。因此 16S 意味着 16 个 Svedberg 单位。
16S ribosomal RNA (or 16S rRNA) is the RNA component of the 30S subunit of a prokaryotic ribosome (SSU rRNA). It binds to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence and provides most of the SSU structure. The genes coding for it are referred to as 16S rRNA genes and are used in reconstructing phylogenies, due to the slow rates of evolution of this region of the gene. Carl Woese and George E. Fox were two of the people who pioneered the use of 16S rRNA in phylogenetics in 1977. Multiple sequences of the 16S rRNA gene can exist within a single bacterium. The descriptor 16S refers to the size of these ribosomal subunits as reflected indirectly by the speed at which they sediment when samples are centrifuged. Thus 16S means 16 Svedberg units.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗内转录间隔区 (ITS) 是位于染色体中小亚基核糖体 RNA (rRNA) 和大亚基 rRNA 基因或多顺反子 rRNA 前体转录物中相应转录区域之间的间隔 DNA。在细菌和古细菌中，有一个 ITS，位于 16S 和 23S rRNA 基因之间。相反，真核生物中有两个 ITS：ITS1 位于 18S 和 5.8S rRNA 基因之间，而 ITS2 位于 5.8S 和 28S（在后康生物中，或在植物中为 25S）rRNA 基因之间。 ITS1 对应于细菌和古细菌中的 ITS，而 ITS2 起源于中断祖先 23S rRNA 基因的插入。在细菌和古细菌中，ITS 存在一到多个拷贝，侧翼 16S 和 23S 基因也是如此。当存在多个副本时，这些副本不会彼此相邻。相反，它们出现在环状染色体的离散位置。
Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) is the spacer DNA situated between the small-subunit ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and large-subunit rRNA genes in the chromosome or the corresponding transcribed region in the polycistronic rRNA precursor transcript. In bacteria and archaea, there is a single ITS, located between the 16S and 23S rRNA genes. Conversely, there are two ITSs in eukaryotes: ITS1 is located between 18S and 5.8S rRNA genes, while ITS2 is between 5.8S and 28S (in opisthokonts, or 25S in plants) rRNA genes. ITS1 corresponds to the ITS in bacteria and archaea, while ITS2 originated as an insertion that interrupted the ancestral 23S rRNA gene. In bacteria and archaea, the ITS occurs in one to several copies, as do the flanking 16S and 23S genes. When there are multiple copies, these do not occur adjacent to one another. Rather, they occur in discrete locations in the circular chromosome.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗微生物组（源自古希腊语 μικρός (mikrós)“小”和 βίος (bíos)“生命”）是通常可以在任何特定栖息地一起生活的微生物群落。 Whipps 等人于 1988 年对其进行了更精确的定义。 “一个特征性的微生物群落，占据一个相当明确的栖息地，具有独特的理化特性。因此，该术语不仅指所涉及的微生物，还包括它们的活动范围”。 2020年，国际专家小组公布了他们关于微生物组定义的讨论结果。
A microbiome (from Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) 'small' and βίος (bíos) 'life') is the community of microorganisms that can usually be found living together in any given habitat. It was defined more precisely in 1988 by Whipps et al. as "a characteristic microbial community occupying a reasonably well-defined habitat which has distinct physio-chemical properties. The term thus not only refers to the microorganisms involved but also encompasses their theatre of activity". In 2020, an international panel of experts published the outcome of their discussions on the definition of the microbiome.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在生物学中，群体感应或群体信号（QS）是细胞间通讯的过程，它允许细菌通过基因调节来检测和响应细胞群体密度，通常作为适应环境劣势的一种手段。群体感应是一种细胞信号传导，更具体地可以被认为是一种旁分泌信号传导。然而，它也包含自分泌信号传导的特征：细胞产生自诱导剂分子和自诱导剂受体。举一个例子，群体感应使细菌能够将特定基因的表达限制在高细胞密度，在高细胞密度下所产生的表型将是最有益的，特别是对于在低细胞密度下无效的表型，因此表达的能量成本太高。
In biology, quorum sensing or quorum signaling (QS) is the process of cell-to-cell communication that allows bacteria to detect and respond to cell population density by gene regulation, typically as a means of acclimating to environmental disadvantages. Quorum sensing is a type of cellular signaling, and can be more specifically considered a type of paracrine signaling. However, it also contains traits of autocrine signaling: a cell produces both an autoinducer molecule and the receptor for the autoinducer. As one example, quorum sensing enables bacteria to restrict the expression of specific genes to the high cell densities at which the resulting phenotypes will be most beneficial, especially for phenotypes that would be ineffective at low cell densities and therefore too energetically costly to express.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗微生物的聚集体，其中细胞经常嵌入自产的胞外聚合物 (EPS) 基质中，相互粘附和/或粘附到表面。生物膜是微生物的互养群落，其中细胞彼此粘附，并且通常也粘附在表面上。这些贴壁细胞嵌入由它们产生的细胞外聚合物 (EPS) 组成的粘稠细胞外基质中，这些物质通常是细胞外多糖、蛋白质、脂质和 DNA 的聚合物组合。由于它们具有三维结构并代表微生物的群落生活方式，因此它们被比喻为“微生物的城市”。
Aggregate of microorganisms in which cells that are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) adhere to each other and/or to a surface. A biofilm is a syntrophic community of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often also to a surface. These adherent cells become embedded within a slimy extracellular matrix composed of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) produced by them, which are typically a polymeric combination of extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and DNA. Because they have a three-dimensional structure and represent a community lifestyle for microorganisms, they have been metaphorically described as "cities for microbes".
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗流式细胞术 (FC) 是一种用于检测和测量细胞或颗粒群的物理和化学特性的技术。在此过程中，含有细胞或颗粒的样品悬浮在液体中并注入流式细胞仪仪器中。样品被聚焦，理想情况下一次让一个细胞流过激光束，其中散射的光是细胞及其成分的特征。细胞通常用荧光标记进行标记，因此光被吸收，然后以一定波长带发射。可以快速检查数以万计的细胞，并由计算机处理收集的数据。流式细胞术常用于基础研究、临床实践和临床试验。流式细胞仪的用途包括：
Flow cytometry (FC) is a technique used to detect and measure the physical and chemical characteristics of a population of cells or particles. In this process, a sample containing cells or particles is suspended in a fluid and injected into the flow cytometer instrument. The sample is focused to ideally flow one cell at a time through a laser beam, where the light scattered is characteristic to the cells and their components. Cells are often labeled with fluorescent markers so light is absorbed and then emitted in a band of wavelengths. Tens of thousands of cells can be quickly examined and the data gathered are processed by a computer. Flow cytometry is routinely used in basic research, clinical practice, and clinical trials. Uses for flow cytometry include:
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗荧光显微镜是一种光学显微镜，它使用荧光代替或补充散射、反射、衰减或吸收来研究有机或无机物质的性质。荧光显微镜是任何使用荧光生成图像的显微镜，无论是落射荧光显微镜等简单设置，还是共焦显微镜等更复杂的设计，共聚焦显微镜使用光学切片来获得更好的荧光图像分辨率。用特定波长（或多个波长）的光照射样本，荧光团吸收这些光，使它们发出更长波长的光（即与吸收的光颜色不同）。通过使用光谱发射滤光片将照明光与较弱的发射荧光分开。
A fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence instead of, or in addition to scattering, reflection, and attenuation or absorption, to study the properties of organic or inorganic substances. A fluorescence microscope is any microscope that uses fluorescence to generate an image, whether it is a simple setup like an epifluorescence microscope or a more complicated design such as a confocal microscope, which uses optical sectioning to get better resolution of the fluorescence image. The specimen is illuminated with light of a specific wavelength (or wavelengths) which is absorbed by the fluorophores, causing them to emit light of longer wavelengths (i.e., of a different color than the absorbed light). The illumination light is separated from the much weaker emitted fluorescence through the use of a spectral emission filter.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗DNA 尖峰，也称为定制尖峰，是合成寡核苷酸时单个简并位置碱基的不同比例。 DNA 尖峰是指给定位置的碱基比例不等（例如，10% 腺嘌呤、75% 鸟嘌呤、5% 胞嘧啶和 10% 胸腺嘧啶）。例如，对于简并代码 R = A + G，50% 的时间 R 位置是腺嘌呤，另外 50% 的时间是鸟嘌呤。然而，对于 DNA 尖峰，R 位在 70% 的情况下可能是腺嘌呤，在 30% 的情况下可能是鸟嘌呤。比例不必是 70:30，比例可以是其他任何比例，例如 12:82 和 64:36。 DNA 加标也可以指 PCR 中的加标控制，即将 DNA 添加到样品中，为反应提供一些信号（例如质粒或某些具有特定已知序列的合成 DNA），并查看反应是否会扩增。
DNA spiking, also known as custom spiking, is the differing ratio of bases at a single degenerate position when synthesizing oligonucleotides. DNA spiking is an unequal proportions of bases at a given position (for example, 10% Adenine, 75% Guanine, 5% Cytosine & 10% Thymine). As an example, with the degenerate code R = A + G, 50% of the time that R position is adenine and the other 50% of the time it is guanine. However, with DNA Spiking, the R position could be adenine 70% of the time and guanine 30% of the time. The proportions do not need to be 70:30, the ratios can be anything else such as 12:82 and 64:36. DNA spiking can also refer to a spike control in PCR, which is when DNA is added to a sample that will provide some signal (e.g. a plasmid or some synthetic DNA with a specific known sequence) to a reaction, and seeing if the reaction will amplify.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗酶模拟（或人工酶）是仿生化学的一个分支，旨在模仿天然酶的功能。酶模拟物是一种小分子复合物，可模拟酶的分子结构、光谱特性或反应性，有时称为仿生复合物。
Enzyme mimic (or Artificial enzyme) is a branch of biomimetic chemistry, which aims at imitating the function of natural enzymes. An enzyme mimic is a small molecule complex that models the molecular structure, spectroscopic properties, or reactivity of an enzyme, sometimes called bioinspired complexes.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质工程是通过设计和生产非天然多肽（通常通过改变自然界中发现的氨基酸序列）来开发有用或有价值的蛋白质的过程。这是一门年轻的学科，在理解蛋白质折叠和识别蛋白质设计原理方面进行了大量研究。它已被用来改善许多工业催化酶的功能。这也是一个产品和服务市场，预计到 2017 年价值将达到 1680 亿美元。蛋白质工程有两种一般策略：合理的蛋白质设计和定向进化。这些方法并不相互排斥；研究人员通常会同时应用两者。未来，对蛋白质结构和功能的更详细了解以及高通量筛选的进步可能会极大地扩展蛋白质工程的能力。
Protein engineering is the process of developing useful or valuable proteins through the design and production of unnatural polypeptides, often by altering amino acid sequences found in nature. It is a young discipline, with much research taking place into the understanding of protein folding and recognition for protein design principles. It has been used to improve the function of many enzymes for industrial catalysis. It is also a product and services market, with an estimated value of $168 billion by 2017. There are two general strategies for protein engineering: rational protein design and directed evolution. These methods are not mutually exclusive; researchers will often apply both. In the future, more detailed knowledge of protein structure and function, and advances in high-throughput screening, may greatly expand the abilities of protein engineering.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质模拟物是模仿某些蛋白质特征（例如形状、结合特性或酶活性）的分子。虽然在概念上与模拟短肽序列或二级结构的肽模拟物相关，但蛋白质模拟物概括了三级结构。这可能涉及整个蛋白质结构域或其片段的模拟。蛋白质模拟方法的范围可以从完全非生物支架到特定的主链和侧链修饰。
Proteomimetics are molecules that mimic certain protein characteristics such as shape, binding properties or enzymatic activity. While conceptually linked to peptidomimetics which mimic short peptide sequences or secondary structures, proteomimetics recapitulate tertiary structures. This can involve the mimicry of entire protein domains or fragments thereof. Proteomimetic approaches can range from entirely abiotic scaffolds to specific main chain and side chain-modifications.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗假酶是催化缺陷（通常无活性）的酶的变体，这意味着它们很少或没有酶催化作用。人们相信它们存在于生命王国的所有主要酶家族中，具有重要的信号传导和代谢功能，其中许多功能现在才被人们所认识。假酶的分析变得越来越重要，特别是当基因组的生物信息学分析揭示了它们的普遍性时。它们在代谢和信号传导途径中的重要调节功能（有时与疾病相关）也为活性酶、兼职蛋白质的非催化功能、蛋白质在不同细胞角色中的重新利用（蛋白质兼职）提供了新的线索。他们还提出了使用小分子和药物来靶向和解释细胞信号传导机制的新方法。
Pseudoenzymes are variants of enzymes that are catalytically-deficient (usually inactive), meaning that they perform little or no enzyme catalysis. They are believed to be represented in all major enzyme families in the kingdoms of life, where they have important signaling and metabolic functions, many of which are only now coming to light. Pseudoenzymes are becoming increasingly important to analyse, especially as the bioinformatic analysis of genomes reveals their ubiquity. Their important regulatory and sometimes disease-associated functions in metabolic and signalling pathways are also shedding new light on the non-catalytic functions of active enzymes, of moonlighting proteins, the re-purposing of proteins in distinct cellular roles (Protein moonlighting). They are also suggesting new ways to target and interpret cellular signalling mechanisms using small molecules and drugs.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗假激酶是蛋白激酶的催化缺陷假酶变体，存在于生命王国的所有激酶组中。假激酶具有生理（信号转导）和病理生理功能。
Pseudokinases are catalytically-deficient pseudoenzyme variants of protein kinases that are represented in all kinomes across the kingdoms of life. Pseudokinases have both physiological (signal transduction) and pathophysiological functions.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质吸附是指蛋白质对固体表面的粘附。这种现象是食品加工行业的一个重要问题，特别是在牛奶加工以及葡萄酒和啤酒生产中。过度吸附或蛋白质污染可能会导致健康和卫生问题，因为吸附的蛋白质很难清洁并且可能含有细菌，就像生物膜中的情况一样。如果吸附的材料干扰巴氏灭菌等加工步骤，产品质量可能会受到不利影响。然而，在某些情况下，蛋白质吸附可用于提高食品质量，例如葡萄酒的澄清。
Protein adsorption refers to the adhesion of proteins to solid surfaces. This phenomenon is an important issue in the food processing industry, particularly in milk processing and wine and beer making. Excessive adsorption, or protein fouling, can lead to health and sanitation issues, as the adsorbed protein is very difficult to clean and can harbor bacteria, as is the case in biofilms. Product quality can be adversely affected if the adsorbed material interferes with processing steps, like pasteurization. However, in some cases protein adsorption is used to improve food quality, as is the case in fining of wines.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗蛋白质精氨酸磷酸酶（PAPs），也称为磷酸精氨酸磷酸酶，是一种催化蛋白质中磷酸精氨酸残基去磷酸化的酶。蛋白磷酸酶 (PP) 是“强制异聚体”，由连接到非催化亚基的两个最大催化亚基组成。精氨酸修饰是革兰氏阳性细菌中的翻译后蛋白质修饰。 McsB 和 YwIE 最近被鉴定为枯草芽孢杆菌 (B. subtilis) 中的磷酸化酶。 YwIE 被认为是一种蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸酶，McsB 是一种酪氨酸激酶，但 Elsholz 等人在 2012 年提出了这一点。结果表明，McsB 是一种蛋白质-精氨酸-激酶 (PAK)，YwlE 是一种磷酸酶-精氨酸-磷酸酶 (PAP)。许多蛋白质依靠蛋白磷酸酶活性来调节其稳定性、定位以及与其他蛋白质的相互作用。
Protein Arginine Phosphatase (PAPs), also known as Phosphoarginine Phosphatase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the dephosphorylation of phosphoarginine residues in proteins. Protein phosphatases (PPs) are "obligatory heteromers" made up of two maximum catalytic subunits attached to a non-catalytic subunit. Arginine modification is a post-translational protein modification in gram-positive bacteria. McsB and YwIE were recently identified as phosphorylating enzymes in Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis). YwIE was thought to be a protein-tyrosine-phosphatase, and McsB a tyrosine-kinase, however in 2012 Elsholz et al. showed that McsB is a protein-arginine-kinase (PAK) and YwlE is a phosphatase-arginine-phosphatase (PAP). Many proteins rely on protein phosphatase activity for regulating their stability, localization, and interaction with other proteins.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗嘌呤核苷酸循环是蛋白质代谢中需要氨基酸天冬氨酸和谷氨酸的代谢途径。该循环用于调节腺嘌呤核苷酸的水平，其中产生氨和富马酸。 AMP 转化为 IMP 和副产品氨。 IMP 转化为 S-AMP（腺苷琥珀酸），然后转化为 AMP 和副产物富马酸盐。当富马酸进入克雷布斯循环，然后进入电子传递链时，通过氧化磷酸化继续产生 ATP（能量）。 Lowenstein 首先描述了该途径，并概述了其在氨基酸分解代谢以及通过糖酵解和克雷布斯循环调节通量等过程中的重要性。当 ATP 储库较低（ADP > ATP）时，剧烈肌肉收缩后，腺苷酸激酶（肌激酶）反应会产生 AMP。
The Purine Nucleotide Cycle is a metabolic pathway in protein metabolism requiring the amino acids aspartate and glutamate. The cycle is used to regulate the levels of adenine nucleotides, in which ammonia and fumarate are generated. AMP converts into IMP and the byproduct ammonia. IMP converts to S-AMP (adenylosuccinate), which then converts to AMP and the byproduct fumarate. The fumarate goes on to produce ATP (energy) via oxidative phosphorylation as it enters the Krebs cycle and then the electron transport chain. Lowenstein first described this pathway and outlined its importance in processes including amino acid catabolism and regulation of flux through glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. AMP is produced after strenuous muscle contraction when the ATP reservoir is low (ADP > ATP) by the adenylate kinase (myokinase) reaction.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在有机化学和生物化学中，侧链是连接到分子核心部分（称为“主链”或主链）的化学基团。侧链是连接到较大烃主链的分子的烃支化元素。它是决定分子性质和反应性的因素之一。侧链也称为侧链，但侧基（侧基）有不同的定义。
In organic chemistry and biochemistry, a side chain is a chemical group that is attached to a core part of the molecule called the "main chain" or backbone. The side chain is a hydrocarbon branching element of a molecule that is attached to a larger hydrocarbon backbone. It is one factor in determining a molecule's properties and reactivity. A side chain is also known as a pendant chain, but a pendant group (side group) has a different definition.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗DNA 固有荧光是 DNA 吸收紫外线 (UV) 辐射时直接发出的荧光。它与荧光标记形成鲜明对比，荧光标记要么简单地结合到 DNA 上，要么共价连接到 DNA 上，广泛应用于生物应用；此类标记可以是化学修饰的，而不是天然存在的核碱基。 20 世纪 60 年代，通过研究低温玻璃中的核酸，发现了内在的 DNA 荧光。自 21 世纪初以来，人们正在通过复杂的光谱技术在室温下研究流体溶液中核酸的微弱发射，使用飞秒激光脉冲作为紫外线源，并跟踪发射光从飞秒到纳秒的演变。特定实验方案的制定对于获得可靠的结果至关重要。
Intrinsic DNA fluorescence is the fluorescence emitted directly by DNA when it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contrasts to that stemming from fluorescent labels that are either simply bound to DNA or covalently attached to it, widely used in biological applications; such labels may be chemically modified, not naturally occurring, nucleobases. The intrinsic DNA fluorescence was discovered in the 1960s by studying nucleic acids in low temperature glasses. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the much weaker emission of nucleic acids in fluid solutions is being studied at room temperature by means sophisticated spectroscopic techniques, using as UV source femtosecond laser pulses, and following the evolution of the emitted light from femtoseconds to nanoseconds. The development of specific experimental protocols has been crucial for obtaining reliable results.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗受体理论是应用受体模型来解释药物行为。药理学受体模型的出现早于对受体的准确认识许多年。约翰·纽波特·兰利 (John Newport Langley) 和保罗·埃利希 (Paul Ehrlich) 在 20 世纪初提出了受体可以介导药物作用的概念。 Alfred Joseph Clark 是第一个量化药物诱导的生物反应（特别是 f 介导的受体激活）的人。到目前为止，几乎所有受体功能的定量理论模型都集中在配体门控离子通道和G蛋白偶联受体上。
Receptor theory is the application of receptor models to explain drug behavior. Pharmacological receptor models preceded accurate knowledge of receptors by many years. John Newport Langley and Paul Ehrlich introduced the concept that receptors can mediate drug action at the beginning of the 20th century. Alfred Joseph Clark was the first to quantify drug-induced biological responses (specifically, f-mediated receptor activation). So far, nearly all of the quantitative theoretical modelling of receptor function has centred on ligand-gated ion channels and G protein-coupled receptors.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在生物化学中，代谢物是新陈代谢的中间产物或最终产物。该术语通常用于小分子。代谢物具有多种功能，包括燃料、结构、信号传导、对酶的刺激和抑制作用、自身的催化活性（通常作为酶的辅因子）、防御以及与其他生物体的相互作用（例如色素、气味剂和信息素）。初级代谢物直接参与正常的“生长”、发育和繁殖。乙烯是工业微生物大规模生产的初级代谢物的例子。次级代谢产物不直接参与这些过程，但通常具有重要的生态功能。例子包括抗生素和颜料，例如树脂和萜烯等。
In biochemistry, a metabolite is an intermediate or end product of metabolism. The term is usually used for small molecules. Metabolites have various functions, including fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory and inhibitory effects on enzymes, catalytic activity of their own (usually as a cofactor to an enzyme), defense, and interactions with other organisms (e.g. pigments, odorants, and pheromones). A primary metabolite is directly involved in normal "growth", development, and reproduction. Ethylene exemplifies a primary metabolite produced large-scale by industrial microbiology. A secondary metabolite is not directly involved in those processes, but usually has an important ecological function. Examples include antibiotics and pigments such as resins and terpenes etc.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗细胞色素 P450（P450 或 CYP）是一个酶超家族，含有血红素作为辅助因子，主要但不限于单加氧酶。然而，它们并不是无所不在的；例如，在大肠杆菌中尚未发现它们。在哺乳动物中，这些酶氧化类固醇、脂肪酸、外源物质，并参与许多生物合成。通过羟基化，CYP450 酶将异生素转化为亲水性衍生物，更容易排出体外。一般来说，P450 是电子传递链中的末端氧化酶，大致分为含 P450 的系统。术语“P450”源自当酶处于还原状态并与一氧化碳络合时在酶的最大吸收波长(450nm)处的分光光度峰。
Cytochromes P450 (P450s or CYPs) are a superfamily of enzymes containing heme as a cofactor that mostly, but not exclusively, function as monooxygenases. However, they are not omnipresent; for example, they have not been found in Escherichia coli. In mammals, these enzymes oxidize steroids, fatty acids, xenobiotics, and participate in many biosyntheses. By hydroxylation, CYP450 enzymes convert xenobiotics into hydrophilic derivatives, which are more readily excreted. P450s are, in general, the terminal oxidase enzymes in electron transfer chains, broadly categorized as P450-containing systems. The term "P450" is derived from the spectrophotometric peak at the wavelength of the absorption maximum of the enzyme (450 nm) when it is in the reduced state and complexed with carbon monoxide.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗活性代谢物或药理活性代谢物是外源物质（例如药物或环境化学品）的生物活性代谢物。活性代谢物可能产生治疗作用，也可能产生有害作用。
An active metabolite, or pharmacologically active metabolite, is a biologically active metabolite of a xenobiotic substance, such as a drug or environmental chemical. Active metabolites may produce therapeutic effects, as well as harmful effects.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗酶抑制剂是一种与酶结合并阻断其活性的分子。酶是加速生命必需的化学反应的蛋白质，其中底物分子转化为产物。酶通过将底物与其活性位点结合来促进特定的化学反应，活性位点是酶上的一个特殊区域，可加速反应中最困难的步骤。酶抑制剂通过与酶的活性位点结合（从而防止底物本身结合）或通过与酶上的另一个位点结合来阻止（“抑制”）该过程，从而阻止酶对反应的催化。酶抑制剂可以可逆或不可逆地结合。不可逆抑制剂与酶形成化学键，从而抑制酶直至化学键断裂。
An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and blocks its activity. Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions necessary for life, in which substrate molecules are converted into products. An enzyme facilitates a specific chemical reaction by binding the substrate to its active site, a specialized area on the enzyme that accelerates the most difficult step of the reaction. An enzyme inhibitor stops ("inhibits") this process, either by binding to the enzyme's active site (thus preventing the substrate itself from binding) or by binding to another site on the enzyme such that the enzyme's catalysis of the reaction is blocked. Enzyme inhibitors may bind reversibly or irreversibly. Irreversible inhibitors form a chemical bond with the enzyme such that the enzyme is inhibited until the chemical bond is broken.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗酶诱导剂是一类通过与酶结合并激活它，或通过增加酶编码基因的表达来增加酶的代谢活性的药物。酶诱导剂的例子之一是细胞色素 P450 酶，它将有助于药物在生物体内更快地代谢。酶诱导剂在制药领域对于了解药物相互作用非常重要。研究表明某些药物会增加诱导剂的活性，例如抗生素。它与酶抑制剂相反。有一些特定类型的酶诱导剂可以产生细胞保护途径，在预防和治疗癌症和其他疾病（包括心血管疾病和神经退行性疾病）中发挥作用。酶诱导剂可以是天然存在的或合成的。
An enzyme inducer is a type of drug that increases the metabolic activity of an enzyme, either by binding to the enzyme and activating it, or by increasing the expression of the gene coding for the enzyme. One of the examples of enzyme inducers can be Cytochrome P450 enzymes, which will help to metabolize the drugs faster in the organism. Enzyme inducers are important in the pharmaceutical field to learn drug interactions. Studies show that certain drugs will increase the activity of the inducer, examples could be antibiotics. It is the opposite of an enzyme repressor. There are specific types of enzyme inducers that create cytoprotective pathways that play a role in prevention and treatment of cancer and other diseases including cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative diseases. Enzyme inducers can be either naturally occurring or synthetically made.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗非竞争性抑制是酶抑制的一种类型，其中抑制剂降低酶的活性并与酶结合得同样好，无论它是否已经结合底物。这与竞争性抑制不同，竞争性抑制在抑制剂存在的情况下酶底物的结合亲和力会降低。无论底物是否已经结合，抑制剂都可以与酶结合，但如果它在一种状态或另一种状态下与酶结合具有更高的亲和力，则称为混合抑制剂。
Non-competitive inhibition is a type of enzyme inhibition where the inhibitor reduces the activity of the enzyme and binds equally well to the enzyme regardless of whether it has already bound the substrate. This is unlike competitive inhibition, where binding affinity for the substrate in the enzyme is decreased in the presence of an inhibitor. The inhibitor may bind to the enzyme regardless of whether the substrate has already been bound, but if it has a higher affinity for binding the enzyme in one state or the other, it is called a mixed inhibitor.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗在链状生物分子（例如蛋白质或核酸）中，结构基序是常见的三维结构，出现在各种不同的、进化上不相关的分子中。结构基序不必与序列基序相关联；它可以由不同蛋白质或RNA中不同且完全不相关的序列来表示。
In a chain-like biological molecule, such as a protein or nucleic acid, a structural motif is a common three-dimensional structure that appears in a variety of different, evolutionarily unrelated molecules. A structural motif does not have to be associated with a sequence motif; it can be represented by different and completely unrelated sequences in different proteins or RNA.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗ATP合成酶，又称三磷酸腺苷合成酶或ATP合酶，在这里并特指F类的FoF1ATP合酶（F Type FoF1 ATP Synthase）。它利用呼吸链产生的质子的电化学势能，通过改变蛋白质的结构来进行三磷酸腺苷(ATP)的合成。ATP是大多数生物体中细胞最常用的“能量通货”。 它由二磷酸腺苷（ADP）和无机磷酸盐（Pi）形成。 ATP合酶催化的总体反应为： ADP + Pi + H+out ⇌ ATP + H2O + H+in ATP合酶由两个主要的亚基Fo和F1组成，它们具有允许ATP产生的旋转运动机制。
ATP synthase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). ATP synthase is a molecular machine. The overall reaction catalyzed by ATP synthase is: ADP + Pi + 2H+out ⇌ ATP + H2O + 2H+in ATP synthase lies across a cellular membrane and forms an aperture that protons can cross from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, imparting energy for the synthesis of ATP. This electrochemical gradient is generated by the electron transport chain and allows cells to store energy in ATP for later use. In prokaryotic cells ATP synthase lies across the plasma membrane, while in eukaryotic cells it lies across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Organisms capable of photosynthesis also have ATP synthase across the thylakoid membrane, which in plants is located in the chloroplast and in cyanobacteria is located in the cytoplasm. ATP synthase is present in all organisms studied.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗细胞壁（英语：cell wall）是许多生物的细胞在细胞膜外面额外加有的一个外层，其厚度常因组织功能不同而异，可以为细胞提供结构支撑和物理保护，同时也作为一种过滤机制。例如将动物细胞放入纯水，会进水量比出水量多而造成爆破；但植物细胞因为有细胞壁，顶多只会膨胀，不至爆破。植物、真菌、藻类和大部分原核生物都具有细胞壁，而支原体和动物的细胞则不具有细胞壁。 细胞壁的组成随着不同物种而变化，并可能取决于细胞的类型和发展阶段。陆生植物的初生细胞壁（primary cell wall）的组成是多糖类的纤维素，半纤维素和果胶。在细菌中，细胞壁的组成是肽聚糖。古菌细胞壁有各种组分物组成，并可能由糖蛋白的S层，假肽聚糖或多糖组成的。真菌具有N-乙酰葡萄糖胺的聚合物几丁质组成的细胞壁，和藻类通常具有糖蛋白和多糖组成的细胞壁。与众不同的是，硅藻具有一个由生物硅组成的细胞壁。其他辅助分子往往也锚定到细胞壁中，例如木质素和几丁质。
A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds some cell types, found immediately outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier. Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand osmotic pressure and mechanical stress. Cell walls are found in most prokaryotes, with the exception of mollicute bacteria. Among the eukaryotes, cells walls are prevalent in fungi, algae and plants but absent from animals and many other taxa. The composition of cell walls varies across taxonomic groups, species, cell type, and the cell cycle. In land plants, the primary cell wall comprises polysaccharides like cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin. Often, other polymers such as lignin, suberin or cutin are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。
查看内容许可 ↗肽聚糖、胞壁蛋白或粘肽是一种独特的大分子，一种多糖，由糖和氨基酸组成，形成围绕细菌细胞质膜的网状层（球囊）。糖成分由 β-(1,4) 连接的 N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖 (NAG) 和 N-乙酰胞壁酸 (NAM) 的交替残基组成。 N-乙酰胞壁酸上附着有一条由三到五个氨基酸组成的寡肽链。肽链可以与另一条链的肽链交联，形成 3D 网状层。肽聚糖在细菌细胞壁中发挥结构作用，提供结构强度，并抵消细胞质的渗透压。
Peptidoglycan, murein or mucopeptide is a unique large macromolecule, a polysaccharide, consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer (sacculus) that surrounds the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. The sugar component consists of alternating residues of β-(1,4) linked N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM). Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is an oligopeptide chain made of three to five amino acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another strand forming the 3D mesh-like layer. Peptidoglycan serves a structural role in the bacterial cell wall, giving structural strength, as well as counteracting the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
查看内容许可 ↗脂多糖（LPS），现在更常被称为内毒素，是革兰氏阴性菌细胞膜最外膜成分的统称，例如具有共同结构的大肠杆菌和沙门氏菌。脂多糖是大分子，由三部分组成：称为 O 抗原的外核多糖、内核寡糖和脂质 A（毒性主要源自脂质 A），全部通过共价键连接。在当前的术语中，术语“内毒素”经常与“LPS”同义使用，尽管有一些内毒素（最初意义上的细菌细胞内的毒素，当细胞解体时释放）与LPS无关，例如苏云金芽孢杆菌产生的所谓的δ内毒素蛋白。
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), now more commonly known as endotoxin, is a collective term for components of the outermost membrane of the cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli and Salmonella with a common structural architecture. Lipopolysaccharides are large molecules consisting of three parts: an outer core polysaccharide termed the O-antigen, an inner core oligosaccharide and lipid A (from which toxicity is largely derived), all covalently linked. In current terminology, the term endotoxin is often used synonymously with LPS, although there are a few endotoxins (in the original sense of toxins that are inside the bacterial cell that are released when the cell disintegrates) that are not related to LPS, such as the so-called delta endotoxin proteins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis.
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维基百科条目作者 · 获取于 2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0。简介经过纯文本提取与截取；两个语言版本的内容侧重可能不同。用于概念速查，不替代标准原文。 本条中文为英文百科简介的机器辅助翻译，请结合英文原文核对专业术语。
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