contains 202 terms · This page displays 30 terms, you can enter keywords to query the complete range
Microbiology反硝化反硝化是一种微生物促进的过程，其中硝酸盐 (NO3) 被还原，并最终通过一系列中间气态氮氧化物产物产生分子氮 (N2)。兼性厌氧细菌进行反硝化作为一种呼吸作用，响应电子供体（例如有机物）的氧化而减少氮的氧化形式。优选的氮电子受体按照热力学有利程度从高到低的顺序包括硝酸盐(NO3)、亚硝酸盐(NO2)、一氧化氮(NO)、一氧化二氮(N2O)，最终产生N2，完成氮循环。反硝化微生物需要低于 10% 的极低氧气浓度，以及电子供体，如有机碳、氢气或还原硫作为能量。
Denitrification is a microbially facilitated process where nitrate (NO3) is reduced and ultimately produces molecular nitrogen (N2) through a series of intermediate gaseous nitrogen oxide products. Facultative anaerobic bacteria perform denitrification as a type of respiration that reduces oxidized forms of nitrogen in response to the oxidation of an electron donor such as organic matter. The preferred nitrogen electron acceptors in order of most to least thermodynamically favorable include nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O), finally resulting in the production of N2, completing the nitrogen cycle. Denitrifying microbes require a very low oxygen concentration of less than 10%, as well as an electron donor, like organic C, hydrogen gas, or reduced sulfur for energy.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 氧化还原电位（也称为氧化/还原电位、ORP、pe、E r e d {\displaystyle E_{red}} 或 E h {\displaystyle E_{h}} ）是化学物质从电极获取电子或失去电子从而分别被还原或氧化的趋势的量度。氧化还原电位以伏特 (V) 表示。每个物种都有其自身固有的氧化还原电位；例如，还原电位越正（由于电化学中的一般形式主义，还原电位更常用），物质对电子的亲和力及其被还原的倾向越大（更强的氧化剂）。在水溶液中，氧化还原电位是溶液在反应中获得或失去电子的趋势的量度。
Redox potential (also known as oxidation / reduction potential, ORP, pe, E r e d {\displaystyle E_{red}} , or E h {\displaystyle E_{h}} ) is a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons from, or lose electrons to, an electrode and thereby be reduced or oxidised respectively. Redox potential is expressed in volts (V). Each species has its own intrinsic redox potential; for example, the more positive the reduction potential (reduction potential is more commonly used due to the general formalism in electrochemistry), the greater the species' affinity for electrons and its tendency to be reduced (stronger oxidising agent). In aqueous solutions, redox potential is a measure of the tendency of the solution to either gain or lose electrons in a reaction.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 兼性厌氧生物体是在存在氧气的情况下通过有氧呼吸产生 ATP 的生物体，但在缺氧情况下能够切换到发酵。兼性厌氧细菌的一些例子是葡萄球菌属、大肠杆菌、沙门氏菌、李斯特菌属、奥尼登希瓦氏菌和鼠疫耶尔森氏菌。某些真核生物也是兼性厌氧生物，包括鳉鱼、酿酒酵母等真菌和许多水生无脊椎动物，例如沙蚕多毛类。据观察，在经历突变为专性需氧菌或厌氧菌的鼠伤寒沙门氏菌突变体中，存在不同水平的染色质重塑蛋白。后来发现专性需氧菌的DNA旋转酶亚基A基因（gyrA）有缺陷，而专性厌氧菌的拓扑异构酶I（topI）有缺陷。
A facultative anaerobic organism is an organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but is capable of switching to fermentation if oxygen is absent. Some examples of facultatively anaerobic bacteria are Staphylococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Listeria spp., Shewanella oneidensis and Yersinia pestis. Certain eukaryotes are also facultative anaerobes, including pupfish, fungi such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and many aquatic invertebrates such as nereid polychaetes. It has been observed that in mutants of Salmonella typhimurium that underwent mutations to be either obligate aerobes or anaerobes, there were varying levels of chromatin-remodeling proteins. The obligate aerobes were later found to have a defective DNA gyrase subunit A gene (gyrA), while obligate anaerobes were defective in topoisomerase I (topI).
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 极端微生物（来自拉丁语 extremus“极端”和古希腊语 φιλία（philía）“爱”）是一种能够在极端环境中生存甚至繁衍生息的生物体，例如极端温度（热或冷）、压力、辐射、盐度或 pH 水平。极端微生物主要是微生物种类——细菌和主要是古细菌，但也包括一些真核生物，如一些真菌和缓步动物。由于极端环境的定义是相对于任意定义的标准（通常是以人类为中心的标准）而言的，因此这些生物体可以被认为在地球进化史上具有生态主导地位。极端微生物在最极端的条件下继续繁衍生息，使它们成为最丰富的生命形式之一。对极端微生物的研究扩展了人类对生命极限的认识，并为对外星生命的猜测提供了信息。
An extremophile (from Latin extremus 'extreme' and Ancient Greek φιλία (philía) 'love') is an organism that is able to live or even thrive in extreme environments, such as extreme temperature (hot or cold), pressure, radiation, salinity, or pH level. Extremophiles are mainly species of microorganisms – bacteria and chiefly archaea, but also include some eukaryotes such as some fungi, and tardigrades. Since the definition of an extreme environment is relative to an arbitrarily defined standard, often an anthropocentric one, these organisms can be considered ecologically dominant in the evolutionary history of the planet. Extremophiles have continued to thrive in the most extreme conditions, making them one of the most abundant lifeforms. The study of extremophiles has expanded human knowledge of the limits of life, and informs speculation about extraterrestrial life.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 嗜热菌是一种在相对较高温度（41 至 122 °C（106 至 252 °F））下生长的极端微生物。许多嗜热菌是古细菌，尽管其中一些是细菌和真菌。嗜热细菌被认为是最早的细菌之一。嗜热生物存在于地球的地热区域，例如黄石国家公园和深海热液喷口的温泉，以及腐烂的植物物质，例如泥炭沼泽和堆肥。它们可以在高温下生存，而其他细菌或古细菌如果暴露在相同的温度下会受到损害，有时甚至被杀死。嗜热菌中的酶在高温下发挥作用。
A thermophile is a type of extremophile that thrives at relatively high temperatures, between 41 and 122 °C (106 and 252 °F). Many thermophiles are archaea, though some of them are bacteria and fungi. Thermophilic bacteria are suggested to have been among the earliest bacteria. Thermophiles are found in geothermally heated regions of the Earth, such as hot springs like those in Yellowstone National Park and deep sea hydrothermal vents, as well as decaying plant matter, such as peat bogs and compost. They can live at high temperatures, whereas other bacteria or archaea would be damaged and sometimes killed if exposed to the same temperatures. The enzymes in thermophiles function at high temperatures.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 嗜酸菌或嗜酸生物是那些在高酸性条件下（通常pH 5.0或以下）繁衍生息的生物。这些生物体可以在生命之树的不同分支中找到，包括古细菌、细菌和真核生物。大多数嗜酸生物已经进化出极其有效的机制，将质子泵出细胞内空间，以保持细胞质处于或接近中性pH值。因此，细胞内蛋白质不需要通过进化来发展酸稳定性。然而，其他嗜酸菌，例如醋杆菌，具有酸化的细胞质，迫使基因组中的几乎所有蛋白质进化出酸稳定性。因此，醋酸杆菌已成为了解蛋白质获得酸稳定性机制的宝贵资源。
Acidophiles or acidophilic organisms are those that thrive under highly acidic conditions (usually at pH 5.0 or below). These organisms can be found in different branches of the tree of life, including Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Most acidophile organisms have evolved extremely efficient mechanisms to pump protons out of the intracellular space in order to keep the cytoplasm at or near neutral pH. Therefore, intracellular proteins do not need to develop acid stability through evolution. However, other acidophiles, such as Acetobacter aceti, have an acidified cytoplasm which forces nearly all proteins in the genome to evolve acid stability. For this reason, Acetobacter aceti has become a valuable resource for understanding the mechanisms by which proteins can attain acid stability.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ Psychrophiles /ˈsaɪkroʊˌfaɪl/或cryophiles（adj. psychrophilic或cryophilic）是能够在-20°C（-4°F）到20°C（68°F）的低温下生长和繁殖的极端微生物。它们存在于永久寒冷的地方，例如极地和深海。它们可以与嗜热生物形成对比，嗜热生物是在异常高温下生长的生物体，而嗜温生物则在中等温度下生长。 Psychrophile 在希腊语中意为“冷酷的”，源自古希腊语 ψυχρός (psukhrós)“寒冷、冰冻”。许多此类生物是细菌或古细菌，但有些是真核生物，如浮游植物，以及多细胞生物，如地衣、雪藻、蠕虫、真菌和无翅蠓。
Psychrophiles /ˈsaɪkroʊˌfaɪl/ or cryophiles (adj. psychrophilic or cryophilic) are extremophilic organisms that are capable of growth and reproduction in low temperatures, ranging from −20 °C (−4 °F) to 20 °C (68 °F). They are found in places that are permanently cold, such as the polar regions and the deep sea. They can be contrasted with thermophiles, which are organisms that thrive at unusually high temperatures, and mesophiles at intermediate temperatures. Psychrophile is Greek for 'cold-loving', from Ancient Greek ψυχρός (psukhrós) 'cold, frozen'. Many such organisms are bacteria or archaea, but some are eukaryotes such as phytoplankton, and multicellular organisms such as lichens, snow algae, worms, fungi, and wingless midges.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 感染是指病原体对组织的侵入、其繁殖以及宿主组织对传染原及其产生的毒素的反应。传染病是由感染引起的疾病，并且某些传染病也是可传染的（可传播的）。感染可由多种病原体引起，其中最常见的是细菌和病毒。宿主可以利用免疫系统对抗感染。哺乳动物宿主对感染有先天反应，通常涉及炎症，然后是适应性反应。感染的治疗取决于所涉及病原体的类型。常见药物包括：
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease is an illness resulting from an infection, and some infectious diseases are also communicable (transmissible). Infections can be caused by a wide range of pathogens, most prominently bacteria and viruses. Hosts can fight infections using their immune systems. Mammalian hosts react to infections with an innate response, often involving inflammation, followed by an adaptive response. Treatment for infections depends on the type of pathogen involved. Common medications include:
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 流行病学是对特定人群中健康和疾病状况的分布（谁、何时、何地）、模式和决定因素的研究和分析，以及应用这些知识来预防疾病。它是公共卫生的基石，通过确定疾病的风险因素和预防性医疗保健的目标来制定政策决策和循证实践。流行病学家帮助研究设计、收集和数据统计分析，修改结果的解释和传播（包括同行评审和偶尔的系统评审）。流行病学帮助开发了用于临床研究、公共卫生研究以及在较小程度上用于生物科学研究的方法。
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in a defined population, and application of this knowledge to prevent diseases. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生物安全级别 (BSL) 或病原体/保护级别是在封闭实验室设施中隔离危险生物制剂所需的一套生物防护预防措施。遏制级别范围从最低生物安全级别 1 (BSL-1) 到最高生物安全级别 4 (BSL-4)。在美国，疾病控制和预防中心 (CDC) 在一份名为微生物和生物医学实验室生物安全 (BMBL) 的出版物中指定了这些水平。在欧盟 (EU)，指令中定义了相同的生物安全级别。在加拿大，这四个级别被称为遏制级别。具有这些名称的设施有时也被指定为 P1 至 P4（针对病原体或防护级别），如 P3 实验室一词。
A biosafety level (BSL), or pathogen/protection level, is a set of biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous biological agents in an enclosed laboratory facility. The levels of containment range from the lowest biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) to the highest at level 4 (BSL-4). In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have specified these levels in a publication referred to as Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL). In the European Union (EU), the same biosafety levels are defined in a directive. In Canada the four levels are known as Containment Levels. Facilities with these designations are also sometimes given as P1 through P4 (for pathogen or protection level), as in the term P3 laboratory.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在流行病学中，风险因素或决定因素是与疾病或感染风险增加相关的变量。由于跨学科缺乏协调，行列式以其更广泛接受的科学含义经常被用作同义词。主要区别在于实践领域：医学（临床实践）与公共卫生。以临床实践为例，维生素 C 膳食来源摄入量低是患坏血病的已知危险因素。具体到公共卫生政策，决定因素是一般性、抽象性、与不平等相关且个人难以控制的健康风险。例如，众所周知，贫困是个人健康标准的决定因素。风险因素或决定因素是相关的，但不一定是因果关系，因为相关性并不能证明因果关系。
In epidemiology, a risk factor or determinant is a variable associated with an increased risk of disease or infection. Due to a lack of harmonization across disciplines, determinant, in its more widely accepted scientific meaning, is often used as a synonym. The main difference lies in the realm of practice: medicine (clinical practice) versus public health. As an example from clinical practice, low ingestion of dietary sources of vitamin C is a known risk factor for developing scurvy. Specific to public health policy, a determinant is a health risk that is general, abstract, related to inequalities, and difficult for an individual to control. For example, poverty is known to be a determinant of an individual's standard of health. Risk factors or determinants are correlational and not necessarily causal, because correlation does not prove causation.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 裂解（/ˈlaɪsɪs/ LY-sis；源自希腊语 λῠ́σῐς lýsis “松动”）是细胞膜的破坏，通常通过病毒、酶或渗透（即“裂解”/ˈlɪtɪk/ LIT-ik）机制破坏细胞膜的完整性。含有裂解细胞内容物的液体称为裂解液。在分子生物学、生物化学和细胞生物学实验室中，细胞培养物在纯化其成分的过程中可能会受到裂解，例如在蛋白质纯化、DNA 提取、RNA 提取或纯化细胞器中。许多种类的细菌都会被溶菌酶裂解，溶菌酶存在于动物唾液、蛋清和其他分泌物中。噬菌体感染过程中产生的噬菌体裂解酶（溶素）负责这些病毒裂解细菌细胞的能力。
Lysis (/ˈlaɪsɪs/ LY-sis; from Greek λῠ́σῐς lýsis 'loosening') is the breaking down of the membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic (that is, "lytic" /ˈlɪtɪk/ LIT-ik) mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a lysate. In molecular biology, biochemistry, and cell biology laboratories, cell cultures may be subjected to lysis in the process of purifying their components, as in protein purification, DNA extraction, RNA extraction, or in purifying organelles. Many species of bacteria are subject to lysis by the enzyme lysozyme, found in animal saliva, egg white, and other secretions. Phage lytic enzymes (lysins) produced during bacteriophage infection are responsible for the ability of these viruses to lyse bacterial cells.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 病毒定量是对样本中病毒颗粒（病毒颗粒）的数量进行计数或计算，以确定病毒浓度。 It is used in both research and development (R&D) in academic and commercial laboratories as well as in production situations where the quantity of virus at various steps is an important variable that must be monitored. For example, the production of virus-based vaccines, recombinant proteins using viral vectors, and viral antigens all require virus quantification to continually monitor and/or modify the process in order to optimize product quality and production yields and to respond to ever changing demands and applications. Other examples of specific instances where viruses need to be quantified include clone screening, multiplicity of infection (MOI) optimization, and adaptation of methods to cell culture.
Virus quantification is counting or calculating the number of virus particles (virions) in a sample to determine the virus concentration. It is used in both research and development (R&D) in academic and commercial laboratories as well as in production situations where the quantity of virus at various steps is an important variable that must be monitored. For example, the production of virus-based vaccines, recombinant proteins using viral vectors, and viral antigens all require virus quantification to continually monitor and/or modify the process in order to optimize product quality and production yields and to respond to ever changing demands and applications. Other examples of specific instances where viruses need to be quantified include clone screening, multiplicity of infection (MOI) optimization, and adaptation of methods to cell culture.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ Titer（美式英语）或 titre（英式英语）是表达浓度的一种方式。滴度测试采用连续稀释来从本质上仅评估为阳性或阴性的分析程序中获取近似定量信息。滴度对应于仍产生阳性读数的最高稀释倍数。例如，前 8 个系列双倍稀释中的阳性读数转化为 1:256（即 2）的效价。滴度有时仅用分母表示，例如 1:256 写为 256。该术语还有其他两个相互冲突的含义。在滴定中，滴定度是滴定剂的实际浓度与标称浓度的比率，例如0.5 的滴定度需要比标称量多 1/0.5 = 2 倍的滴定剂。这是为了补偿滴定剂溶液可能发生的降解。
Titer (American English) or titre (British English) is a way of expressing concentration. Titer testing employs serial dilution to obtain approximate quantitative information from an analytical procedure that inherently only evaluates as positive or negative. The titer corresponds to the highest dilution factor that still yields a positive reading. For example, positive readings in the first 8 serial, twofold dilutions translate into a titer of 1:256 (i.e., 2). Titres are sometimes expressed by the denominator only, for example 1:256 is written 256. The term also has two other, conflicting meanings. In titration, the titer is the ratio of actual to nominal concentration of a titrant, e.g. a titer of 0.5 would require 1/0.5 = 2 times more titrant than nominal. This is to compensate for possible degradation of the titrant solution.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 在微生物学中，感染的多重性或 MOI 是病原体（例如噬菌体或更一般的病毒、细菌）与感染目标（例如细胞）的比率。例如，当指的是接种了病毒颗粒的一组细胞时，MOI 是病毒颗粒数量与存在于限定空间中的靶细胞数量的比率。进入任何给定细胞的病毒或细菌的实际数量是一个随机过程：一些细胞可能吸收多种传染源，而另一些细胞可能不吸收任何传染源。在确定感染的多重性之前，绝对有必要拥有一种隔离良好的试剂，因为原始试剂可能无法产生可靠且可重复的结果。
In microbiology, the multiplicity of infection or MOI is the ratio of agents (e.g. phage or more generally virus, bacteria) to infection targets (e.g. cell). For example, when referring to a group of cells inoculated with virus particles, the MOI is the ratio of the number of virus particles to the number of target cells present in a defined space. The actual number of viruses or bacteria that will enter any given cell is a stochastic process: some cells may absorb more than one infectious agent, while others may not absorb any. Before determining the multiplicity of infection, it's absolutely necessary to have a well-isolated agent, as crude agents may not produce reliable and reproducible results.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 免疫系统是保护生物体免受疾病侵害的生物系统网络。它可以检测并响应多种病原体，例如病毒、细菌和寄生虫，以及癌细胞和异物（例如木碎片），从而将它们与生物体自身的健康组织区分开来。许多物种有两个主要的免疫系统子系统。先天免疫系统对广泛的情况和刺激提供预先配置的反应。适应性免疫系统通过学习识别之前遇到的分子，对每次刺激做出量身定制的反应。两者都使用专门的分子和细胞来执行其功能。几乎所有生物体都具有某种免疫系统。细菌具有酶形式的基本免疫系统，可以防止病毒感染。
The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites, as well as cancer cells and foreign objects, such as wood splinters—distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use specialised molecules and cells to perform their functions. Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system. Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against viral infections.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 细胞因子 (/ˈsaɪtəkaɪn/) 是一类广泛而松散的小蛋白 (~5-25 kDa)，对细胞信号转导非常重要。细胞因子由多种细胞产生，包括免疫细胞、内皮细胞、成纤维细胞和各种类型的结缔组织细胞。单一细胞因子可以由不止一种类型的细胞产生。细胞因子通常太大而无法穿过细胞膜并进入细胞。它们通常通过与靶细胞表面的特定细胞因子受体相互作用来发挥作用。细胞因子包括趋化因子、干扰素、白细胞介素、淋巴因子和肿瘤坏死因子，但通常不包括激素或生长因子（尽管术语有一些重叠）。细胞因子在免疫系统中尤其重要，包括免疫反应和炎症。
Cytokines (/ˈsaɪtəkaɪn/) are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–25 kDa) important in cell signaling. Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various types of connective tissue cells. A single cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell. Cytokines are usually too large to cross cell membranes and enter cells. They typically function by interacting with specific cytokine receptors on the surface of target cells. Cytokines include chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, and tumour necrosis factors, but generally not hormones or growth factors (despite some overlap in the terminology). Cytokines are especially important in the immune system, including in immune responses and inflammation.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 流式细胞术 (FC) 是一种用于检测和测量细胞或颗粒群的物理和化学特性的技术。在此过程中，含有细胞或颗粒的样品悬浮在液体中并注入流式细胞仪仪器中。样品被聚焦，理想情况下一次让一个细胞流过激光束，其中散射的光是细胞及其成分的特征。细胞通常用荧光标记进行标记，因此光被吸收，然后以一定波长带发射。可以快速检查数以万计的细胞，并由计算机处理收集的数据。流式细胞术常用于基础研究、临床实践和临床试验。流式细胞仪的用途包括：
Flow cytometry (FC) is a technique used to detect and measure the physical and chemical characteristics of a population of cells or particles. In this process, a sample containing cells or particles is suspended in a fluid and injected into the flow cytometer instrument. The sample is focused to ideally flow one cell at a time through a laser beam, where the light scattered is characteristic to the cells and their components. Cells are often labeled with fluorescent markers so light is absorbed and then emitted in a band of wavelengths. Tens of thousands of cells can be quickly examined and the data gathered are processed by a computer. Flow cytometry is routinely used in basic research, clinical practice, and clinical trials. Uses for flow cytometry include:
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 荧光显微镜是一种光学显微镜，它使用荧光代替或补充散射、反射、衰减或吸收来研究有机或无机物质的性质。荧光显微镜是任何使用荧光生成图像的显微镜，无论是落射荧光显微镜等简单设置，还是共焦显微镜等更复杂的设计，共聚焦显微镜使用光学切片来获得更好的荧光图像分辨率。用特定波长（或多个波长）的光照射样本，荧光团吸收这些光，使它们发出更长波长的光（即与吸收的光颜色不同）。通过使用光谱发射滤光片将照明光与较弱的发射荧光分开。
A fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence instead of, or in addition to scattering, reflection, and attenuation or absorption, to study the properties of organic or inorganic substances. A fluorescence microscope is any microscope that uses fluorescence to generate an image, whether it is a simple setup like an epifluorescence microscope or a more complicated design such as a confocal microscope, which uses optical sectioning to get better resolution of the fluorescence image. The specimen is illuminated with light of a specific wavelength (or wavelengths) which is absorbed by the fluorophores, causing them to emit light of longer wavelengths (i.e., of a different color than the absorbed light). The illumination light is separated from the much weaker emitted fluorescence through the use of a spectral emission filter.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 需氧生物或需氧生物是能够在含氧环境中生存和生长的生物。表现出有氧呼吸的能力可能会给需氧生物体带来好处，因为有氧呼吸比无氧呼吸产生更多的能量。细胞的能量产生涉及通过称为 ATP 合酶的酶合成 ATP。在有氧呼吸中，ATP 合酶与电子传递链偶联，其中氧充当末端电子受体。 2020 年 7 月，海洋生物学家报告称，在南太平洋环流 (SPG)（“海洋中最死亡的地方”）海底 250 英尺、有机质贫乏的沉积物中发现了（主要）处于“准假死状态”的需氧微生物，这些沉积物的历史长达 1.015 亿年，并且可能是迄今为止发现的最长寿的生命形式。
An aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated environment. The ability to exhibit aerobic respiration may yield benefits to the aerobic organism, as aerobic respiration yields more energy than anaerobic respiration. Energy production of the cell involves the synthesis of ATP by an enzyme called ATP synthase. In aerobic respiration, ATP synthase is coupled with an electron transport chain in which oxygen acts as a terminal electron acceptor. In July 2020, marine biologists reported that aerobic microorganisms (mainly), in "quasi-suspended animation", were found in organically poor sediments, up to 101.5 million years old, 250 feet below the seafloor in the South Pacific Gyre (SPG) ("the deadest spot in the ocean"), and could be the longest-living life forms ever found.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 农业微生物学是微生物学的一个分支，研究与植物相关的微生物以及动植物疾病。它还涉及土壤肥力的微生物学，例如有机物的微生物降解和土壤养分转化。农业微生物学的首要目标是全面探索细菌、真菌等有益微生物与作物之间的相互作用。它还涉及土壤肥力的微生物学，例如有机物的微生物降解和土壤养分转化。生物肥料被视为有害化肥的有前景、可持续的替代品，因为它们能够通过增强作物免疫力和发育来提高产量和土壤肥力。当施用于土壤、植物或种子时，这些生物肥料会在根际或植物根部内部定殖。
Agricultural microbiology is a branch of microbiology dealing with plant-associated microbes and plant and animal diseases. It also deals with the microbiology of soil fertility, such as microbial degradation of organic matter and soil nutrient transformations. The primary goal of agricultural microbiology is to comprehensively explore the interactions between beneficial microorganisms like bacteria and fungi with crops. It also deals with the microbiology of soil fertility, such as microbial degradation of organic matter and soil nutrient transformations. Biofertilizers are seen as promising, sustainable alternatives to harmful chemical fertilizers due to their ability to increase yield and soil fertility through enhancing crop immunity and development. When applied to the soil, plant, or seed these biofertilizers colonize the rhizosphere or interior of the plant root.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 碱裂解是从质粒和细胞（例如细菌细胞）中存在的其他染色体外来源中分离和提取脱氧核糖核酸（DNA）的过程。它是分子生物学中用于分离质粒 DNA 而不获取染色体或基因组 DNA 的标准方法。第一次碱裂解是由 Birnom 和 Doly 于 1979 年进行的。该过程有很多变化，但碱裂解的一般过程可以概括为以下步骤：细胞沉淀的形成、沉淀在溶液中的重悬、细胞裂解、中和和离心。碱裂解利用了质粒 DNA 与染色体 DNA 相比较小且超螺旋的物理组成，以及其在最佳条件下重新退火双链 DNA 的能力。
Alkaline lysis is the process of isolating and extracting deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from plasmids and other extrachromosomal sources present in cells such as bacterial cells. It is a standard method used in molecular biology to isolate plasmid DNA without obtaining chromosomal or genomic DNA. The first alkaline lysis was performed by Birnom and Doly in 1979. There are many variations of the procedure but the general process of alkaline lysis can be summarized with the following steps: formation of a cell pellet, resuspension of the pellet in solution, cell lysis, neutralization, and centrifugation. Alkaline lysis takes advantage of the small and supercoiled physical composition of plasmid DNA compared to chromosomal DNA, along with its ability to re-anneal double-stranded DNA in optimal conditions.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 变形虫或变形虫（/ə.ˈmiː.bə/；复数：变形虫或阿米巴（不太常见，变形虫或变形虫 /ə.ˈmiː.bi/）），通常称为变形虫，是一种细胞或单细胞生物，具有改变其形状的能力，主要是通过伸展和缩回伪足。变形虫不形成单一的分类群；相反，它们存在于真核生物的每个主要谱系中。变形虫细胞不仅存在于原生动物中，而且也存在于真菌、藻类和动物中。微生物学家经常互换使用术语“变形虫”和“阿米巴”来形容任何表现出变形虫运动的生物体。在较旧的分类系统中，大多数变形虫被归入肉球纲或亚门，这是一组具有伪足或通过原生质流移动的单细胞生物。
An amoeba or ameba (/ə.ˈmiː.bə/; pl.: amoebas or amebas (less commonly, amoebae or amebae /ə.ˈmiː.bi/)), often called an amoeboid, is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods. Amoebae do not form a single taxonomic group; instead, they are found in every major lineage of eukaryotic organisms. Amoeboid cells occur not only among the protozoa, but also in fungi, algae, and animals. Microbiologists often use the terms "amoeboid" and "amoeba" interchangeably for any organism that exhibits amoeboid movement. In older classification systems, most amoebae were placed in the class or subphylum Sarcodina, a grouping of single-celled organisms that possess pseudopods or move by protoplasmic flow.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 阿米巴鞭毛虫是任何能够在其生命周期的某个时刻表现出阿米巴原虫和鞭毛虫行为的真核生物。变形鞭毛虫具有伪足和至少一个鞭毛，通常处于不同的生命阶段（如福氏耐格里阿米巴（Naegleria fowleri），一种人类病原体）或同时处于同一阶段（如尾单胞菌）。变形鞭毛虫细胞类型在原生生物（即主要是非植物、真菌或动物的单细胞真核生物）的进化过程中已经获得了多次独立的时间。具有阿米巴鞭毛虫身体类型的原生生物门的一些例子是： 阿米巴鞭毛虫表型存在于许多原生生物中，这些原生生物在动物和真菌的起源附近具有重要的系统发育位置，在被称为后康塔 (Opisthokonta) 的巨大进化枝内。
An amoeboflagellate is any eukaryotic organism capable of behaving as an amoeba and as a flagellate at some point during their life cycle. Amoeboflagellates present pseudopodia and at least one flagellum, often in separate life stages (as in Naegleria fowleri, a human pathogen) or in the same stage simultaneously (as in Cercomonas). The amoeboflagellate cell type has been acquired numerous independent times across the evolution of protists (i.e. primarily unicellular eukaryotes that are not plants, fungi or animals). Some examples of protist phyla with amoeboflagellate body types are: The amoeboflagellate phenotype is present in numerous protists that have a crucial phylogenetic position near the origin of animals and fungi, within the vast clade known as Opisthokonta.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 安东血型抗原是一些人类红细胞上发现的细胞表面受体。据观察，它在流感嗜血杆菌感染中发挥作用。研究表明细菌可以粘附在这种受体上并导致人类红细胞凝集。 1985年，该抗原被发现与另一种称为Wj的抗原相同，因此通常简称为AnWj。 1991年，对具有该性状的家族进行的一项研究表明，该表型确实具有独立于其他人类血型系统的遗传特征，2024年，人们发现遗传性AnWj阴性血型表型是由编码髓磷脂和淋巴细胞（MAL）蛋白表达的MAL基因纯合性缺失引起的。这篇与微生物学相关的文章是一个小作品。您可以通过添加缺失的信息来帮助维基百科。
The Anton blood group antigen is a cell surface receptor found on some human red blood cells. It has been observed to play a role in Haemophilus influenzae infections. Studies showed that bacterium can adhere to this receptor and cause human red blood cells to agglutinate. In 1985, this antigen was found to be the same as another called Wj, so it is usually referred as AnWj. In 1991, a study of a family with the trait showed that the phenotype indeed had an inherited character independent of other human blood group systems and in 2024, it was found that the inherited AnWj-negative blood group phenotype is caused by homozygosity for a deletion in the MAL gene that encodes the expression of the Myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) protein. This microbiology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 1QBH、2L9M、3D9T、3D9U、3M1D、3MUP、3OZ1、3T6P、3UW4、4EB9、4HY4、4HY5、4KMN、4LGE、4LGU、4MTI、4MU7 杆状病毒 IAP 重复序列蛋白 2（也称为 cIAP1）是一种蛋白在人类中，它是由 BIRC2 基因编码的。它属于 IAP 蛋白家族，因此包含至少一个 BIR（杆状病毒 IAP 重复序列）结构域。 cIAP1是一种多功能蛋白，存在于细胞的细胞质和肿瘤细胞的细胞核中。它在这种特殊情况下的功能还有待理解。然而，众所周知，这种蛋白质对多种癌症的生长有很大影响。 cIAP1参与骨肉瘤、胃癌等的发生发展过程。 cIAP1 的细胞定位因细胞生命周期的不同阶段而异。在健康细胞中，蛋白质通常存在于细胞核中。
1QBH, 2L9M, 3D9T, 3D9U, 3M1D, 3MUP, 3OZ1, 3T6P, 3UW4, 4EB9, 4HY4, 4HY5, 4KMN, 4LGE, 4LGU, 4MTI, 4MU7 Baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein 2 (also known as cIAP1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BIRC2 gene. It belongs to the IAP family of proteins and therefore contains at least one BIR (baculoviral IAP repeat) domain. cIAP1 is a multi-functional protein which can be found in the cytoplasm of cells and in the nucleus of tumor cells. Its function in this particular case is yet to be understood. However, it is well known that this protein has a big influence in the growth of diverse cancers. cIAP1 is involved in the development process of osteosarcoma and gastric cancer among others. The cellular localization of cIAP1 is diverse depending on the phase of the living cycle of the cell. In healthy cells the protein is usually found in the nucleus.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生物强化是城市废水处理中常用的一种生物修复方法，用于重启活性污泥生物反应器。大多数可用的培养物含有微生物培养物，已经含有所有必需的微生物（地衣芽孢杆菌、苏云金芽孢杆菌、多粘假单胞菌、嗜热脂肪芽孢杆菌、青霉属、曲霉属、黄杆菌属、节杆菌属、假单胞菌属、链霉菌属、酵母属等）。活性污泥系统通常基于细菌、原生动物、线虫、轮虫和真菌等微生物，它们能够降解可生物降解的有机物。使用生物强化可以带来许多积极的成果，例如提高物质分解过程的效率和速度以及减少某个区域的有毒颗粒。
Bioaugmentation is a type of bioremediation commonly used in municipal wastewater treatment to restart activated sludge bioreactors. Most cultures available contain microbial cultures, already containing all necessary microorganisms (B. licheniformis, B. thuringiensis, P. polymyxa, B. stearothermophilus, Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Saccharomyces, etc.). Activated sludge systems are generally based on microorganisms like bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, rotifers, and fungi, which are capable of degrading biodegradable organic matter. There are many positive outcomes from the use of bioaugmentation, such as the improvement in efficiency and speed of the process of breaking down substances and the reduction of toxic particles in an area.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生物堵塞或生物堵塞是指微生物量（包括活性细胞及其副产物，例如细胞外聚合物（EPS））对土壤孔隙空间的堵塞。微生物生物量阻塞孔隙空间，在土壤中形成不透水层，并显着降低水的渗透率。在各种现场条件下，例如人工补给池、渗滤沟、灌溉渠道、污水处理系统、人工湿地、垃圾填埋场衬垫以及河床和土壤等自然系统，连续池塘渗透会发生生物堵塞。它还影响含水层中的地下水流量，例如地源热泵、渗透性反应屏障和微生物强化采油。
Bioclogging or biological clogging refers to the blockage of pore space in soil by microbial biomass, including active cells and their byproducts such as extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). The microbial biomass obstructs pore spaces, creating an impermeable layer in the soil and significantly reducing water infiltration rates. Bioclogging occurs under continuous ponded infiltration at various field conditions such as artificial recharge ponds, percolation trenches, irrigation channels, sewage treatment systems, constructed wetlands, landfill liners and natural systems such as riverbeds and soils. It also affects groundwater flow in the aquifer, such as ground source heat pumps, permeable reactive barriers, and microbial enhanced oil recovery.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生物碳固定或碳同化是生物体将无机碳（特别是二氧化碳，CO2）转化为有机化合物的过程。然后，这些有机化合物被用来储存能量并作为其他生物分子的结构。碳主要通过光合作用固定，但一些生物体在没有阳光的情况下使用化学合成。化学合成是由化学能而非阳光驱动的碳固定。生物碳固定过程在全球碳循环中发挥着至关重要的作用，因为它是从大气中去除二氧化碳并将其纳入生物量的主要机制。有机化合物的初级生产使碳能够进入生物圈。碳被认为是生命所必需的，是构建有机化合物的基本元素。
Biological carbon fixation, or carbon assimilation, is the process by which living organisms convert inorganic carbon (particularly carbon dioxide, CO2) to organic compounds. These organic compounds are then used to store energy and as structures for other biomolecules. Carbon is primarily fixed through photosynthesis, but some organisms use chemosynthesis in the absence of sunlight. Chemosynthesis is carbon fixation driven by chemical energy rather than from sunlight. The process of biological carbon fixation plays a crucial role in the global carbon cycle, as it serves as the primary mechanism for removing CO2 from the atmosphere and incorporating it into living biomass. The primary production of organic compounds allows carbon to enter the biosphere. Carbon is considered essential for life as a base element for building organic compounds.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗ 生物指标评估电阻计 (BIER) 容器是一种设备，用于确定将给定生物体的存活率减少 90%（也称为 log 1 减少）所需的时间。该名称源自设备的使用方式。 BIER 容器评估生物指示剂对湿热（蒸汽）灭菌的耐受性。例如，如果确定所评估的微生物在 5 分钟内减少 90%，则指定 D 值为 5。 D 值特定于起始生物负荷、基质（孢子所在的材料）和微生物种类。 BIER 容器的成本通常超过 100,000 美元，因此往往位于生产生物指示剂的地方。
A Biological Indicator Evaluation Resistometer (BIER) vessel is a piece of equipment used to determine the time taken to reduce survival of a given organism by 90% (also known as a log 1 reduction). The name derives from how the equipment is used. A BIER vessel evaluates the resistance of biological indicators to moist heat (steam) sterilization. For example, if a 90% reduction is determined to be 5 minutes for the microorganism being evaluated, then a D-value of 5 is assigned. D values are specific to starting bioload, substrate (the material the spores are on), and microbe species. BIER vessels typically cost in excess of $100,000, and thus tend to be located where biological indicators are manufactured.
Sources, licensing and use
Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements. The Chinese definition is a machine-assisted translation of the cited English introduction; check technical terminology against the original.
View content license ↗