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Earth & Geophysics地球中微子地球中微子，又称地中微子，是地球上天然存在的放射性核素衰变过程中产生的中微子或反中微子。中微子是目前人类已知的亚原子粒子中最轻的粒子。它不具有可测量的电磁特性，并且在忽略重力的情况下仅通过弱核力相互作用。物质对中微子几乎是透明的，因此中微子可以以接近光速的速度畅通无阻地穿过地球内部。由于地球中微子携带着关于地球内部放射性同位素丰度的综合信息，中微子地球物理学这一新兴领域也随之诞生。 大多数地球中微子是反电中微子，主要产生于40K、232Th和238U的β-衰变过程。这些衰变链占现在地球内部产生的辐射热的99%以上。不过，其中只有产生自232Th和238U衰变链的地球中微子可以通过自由质子上的逆β衰变机制检测到，因为它们的能量均高于1.8 MeV的检测阈值。在中微子实验中，大型地下液体闪烁体探测器可以记录这种相互作用产生的闪光。截至2022年，KamLAND、Borexino和SNO+等探测器均已投入使用，用以观测收集地球中微子相关的数据。
In nuclear and particle physics, a geoneutrino is a neutrino or antineutrino emitted during the decay of naturally occurring radionuclides in the Earth. Neutrinos, the lightest of the known subatomic particles, lack measurable electromagnetic properties and interact only via the weak nuclear force (when ignoring gravity). Matter is virtually transparent to neutrinos and consequently they travel, unimpeded, at near light speed through the Earth from their point of emission. Collectively, geoneutrinos carry integrated information about the abundances of their radioactive sources inside the Earth. A major objective of the emerging field of neutrino geophysics involves extracting geologically useful information (e.g., abundances of individual geoneutrino-producing elements and their spatial distribution in Earth's interior) from geoneutrino measurements. Analysts from the Borexino collaboration have been able to get to 53 events of neutrinos originating from the interior of the Earth. Most geoneutrinos are electron antineutrinos originating in β− decay branches of 40K, 232Th and 238U.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 大型低剪力波速群（英语：Large low-shear-velocity provinces，简称 LLSVPs），又称为大规模低波速域（LLVPs）或超级脉涌（superplumes），是分布于地球最下部地幔、邻近外核区域的一类典型深部构造。 这些区域具有低S 波速度的特征，最初由深地球的地震层析成像辨识而得。全球共主要辨识出两处：非洲LLSVP与太平洋LLSVP，其侧向延伸可达数千公里，垂向自核幔边界向上延伸可能达1,000公里。它们分别被命名为Tuzo与Jason，以纪念在板块构造领域具有重要地位的地质学家约翰·图佐·威尔逊及威廉·杰森·摩根。太平洋LLSVP的宽度约为3,000千米（1,900英里），其下方对应至少四个地表地质热点，显示其深部可能存在多个地幔热柱。整体而言，这些区域占地幔体积约8%，或约占整个地球体积的6%。 LLSVP及其相关大型结构亦有其他称呼，例如超级隆起、超级脉涌、热－化学堆积体或隐藏储库等，这些名称大多系描述其可能的地球动力学或地球化学行为。例如“热－化学堆积体”一词将LLSVP诠释为深部地幔中具高温或化学组成差异的堆积构造。由于其成因、性质与动力效应仍未完全厘清，LLSVP仍被视为深地球研究中的重要未解谜题之一。
Large low-shear-velocity provinces (LLSVPs), also called large low-velocity provinces (LLVPs) or superplumes, are characteristic structures within the lowermost mantle, above the Earth's outer core. These provinces are characterized by slow shear wave velocities appearing in seismic tomography assays of deep Earth. The two main provinces are the African LLSVP and the Pacific LLSVP, both extending laterally for thousands of kilometers and possibly up to 1,000 kilometers (620 miles) vertically from the core–mantle boundary. These have been named Tuzo and Jason, respectively, after Tuzo Wilson and W. Jason Morgan, two acclaimed geologists in the field of plate tectonics. The Pacific LLSVP (Jason) is 3,000 kilometers (1,900 miles) across and underlies four hotspots on Earth's crust where mantle plumes are believed to reach to the surface. These provinces represent around 8% of the volume of the mantle, or 6% of the entire Earth.
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View content license ↗ 环状电流是被困在行星磁层内的带电粒子所运载的电流，它是在经度（纵剖面） 上漂移的高能（10–200 keV）粒子。
A ring current is an electric current carried by charged particles trapped in a planet's magnetosphere. It is caused by the longitudinal drift of energetic (10–200 keV) particles.
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View content license ↗ 舒曼波是地球电磁场频谱的极低频部分。是一种产生于地表和电离层间的全球性电磁共振，由闪电放电激发。
The Schumann resonances (SR) are a set of spectral peaks in the extremely low frequency portion of the Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum. They are global electromagnetic resonances generated and excited by lightning discharges in the cavity formed by the Earth's surface and the ionosphere.
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View content license ↗ 岩石磁性（英语：rock magnetism）是对岩石、沉积物和土壤的磁性的研究。研究此磁场是由于古地磁学需要了解岩石如何记录过去地球磁场。这种剩磁由主要磁性矿物，如磁铁矿所系带。研究剩磁的理解有助于古地磁学家发展测量古代磁场的方法，并纠正沉积物压实和变质作用等效应。研究岩石磁性有助于了解海洋磁异常条纹图案的来源，从而提供有关板块构造的重要资讯。它们也用于解释磁力测量中的地球磁异常以及火星上的强地壳磁性。
Rock magnetism is the study of the magnetic properties of rocks, sediments and soils. The field arose out of the need in paleomagnetism to understand how rocks record the Earth's magnetic field. This remanence is carried by minerals, particularly certain strongly magnetic minerals like magnetite (the main source of magnetism in lodestone). An understanding of remanence helps paleomagnetists to develop methods for measuring the ancient magnetic field and correct for effects like sediment compaction and metamorphism. Rock magnetic methods are used to get a more detailed picture of the source of the distinctive striped pattern in marine magnetic anomalies that provides important information on plate tectonics. They are also used to interpret terrestrial magnetic anomalies in magnetic surveys as well as the strong crustal magnetism on Mars. Strongly magnetic minerals have properties that depend on the size, shape, defect structure and concentration of the minerals in a rock.
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View content license ↗ 地震偏移（seismic migration）是一种地震数据处理，能把地震记录上的数据回归到其原来在地下的真实空间位置。偏移能消除衍射，和把倾斜反射面归位。尤其在地质复杂地区，偏移能对断层，褶皱等构造的成像，增高精密度。在地震数据处理时对常规水平叠加之前的地震数据进行偏移处理，称“地震叠前偏移”，反之称“地震叠后偏移” .
Seismic migration is the process by which seismic events are geometrically re-located in either space or time to the location the event occurred in the subsurface rather than the location that it was recorded at the surface, thereby creating a more accurate image of the subsurface. This process is necessary to overcome the limitations of geophysical methods imposed by areas of complex geology, such as: faults, salt bodies, folding, etc. Migration moves dipping reflectors to their true subsurface positions and collapses diffractions, resulting in a migrated image that typically has an increased spatial resolution and resolves areas of complex geology much better than non-migrated images. A form of migration is one of the standard data processing techniques for reflection-based geophysical methods (seismic reflection and ground-penetrating radar) The need for migration has been understood since the beginnings of seismic exploration and the very first seismic reflection data from 1921 were migrated.
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View content license ↗ 在大地测量学中，参考椭球是一个数学上定义的地球表面，它近似于大地水准面。 由于其相对简单，参考椭球是大地控制网计算和显示点坐标（如纬度，经度和海拔）的首选的地球表面的几何模型。通常所说地球的形状和大小，实际上就是以参考椭球的长半轴、短半轴和扁率来表示的。
An Earth ellipsoid or Earth spheroid is a mathematical figure approximating the Earth's shape and size, used as part of a reference frame for coordinates and computations in geodesy, astronomy, and the geosciences. Various different reference ellipsoids have been used as approximations. It is an oblate spheroid (an ellipsoid of revolution) whose minor axis (polar diameter), connecting the geographical poles, is approximately aligned with the Earth's axis of rotation. The ellipsoid is also defined by the major axis (equatorial axis); the difference between the two axes is slightly more than 21 km or 0.335%. Many methods exist for determination of the axes of an Earth ellipsoid, ranging from meridian arcs up to modern satellite geodesy or the analysis and interconnection of continental geodetic networks. Amongst the different set of data used in national surveys are several of special importance: the Bessel ellipsoid of 1841, the international Hayford ellipsoid of 1924, and (for GPS positioning) the WGS84 ellipsoid.
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View content license ↗ 地震地层学是把地层学和沉积学特别是岩性、岩相的研究成果，运用到地震解释工作中，把地震资料中蕴藏的地层和沉积特征的信息充分利用起来，做出系统解释的方法。地震地层学以反射地震资料为基础，进行地层划分对比、判断沉积环境、预测岩相岩性，主要用于各种沉积矿产，特别是油气资源的调查勘探。
Seismic stratigraphy is a method for studying sedimentary rock in the deep subsurface based on seismic data acquisition.
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View content license ↗ 大地电流（英语：Telluric current，最初源自拉丁语单词tellūs）是指在地下或者海洋里流通电流的现象。大地电流的产生主要是由于自然因素和人类活动的双重作用，这些不连续的电流以较为复杂的形式相互作用。大地电流具有极低频，在地球表面大范围地流动。
A telluric current (from Latin tellūs 'earth'), or Earth current, is an electric current that flows underground or through the sea, resulting from natural and human-induced causes. These currents have extremely low frequency and traverse large areas near or at Earth's surface. Earth's crust and mantle are host to telluric currents, with around 32 mechanisms generating them, primarily geomagnetically induced currents caused by changes in Earth's magnetic field due to solar wind interactions with the magnetosphere or solar radiation's effects on the ionosphere. These currents exhibit diurnal patterns, flowing towards the Sun during the day and towards the geomagnetic poles at night. Both telluric and magnetotelluric methods exploit these currents for subsurface exploration, aiding in activities like geothermal and mineral exploration, petroleum prospecting, fault zone mapping, groundwater assessment, and the study of tectonic plate boundaries. The phenomenon has also captured the imagination of authors, finding its way into fiction.
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View content license ↗ 地壳构造物理学（英语：Tectonophysics）是地球物理学的一个分支，是研究地质构造岩石层内的构造运动和变形的物理过程，以及它们和力的关系的学科。该领域包括应力的，应变的，并在地球的岩石圈与软流圈不同流变学的空间格局，这些模式之间的关系，和由于板块构造变形观察到模式（这一段中第一句是正确的，其他不知所云，翻译错误）。 地球内部物理学是利用观测到的各种地球物理、地球化学（明明是物理，为何化学也参入？）以及地质现象来研究地球内部的结构、物质的物理性质和物理状态以及化学组成的学科。地核构造学研究地核构造运动和变形的物理过程。
Tectonophysics, a branch of geophysics, is the study of the physical processes that underlie tectonic deformation. This includes measurement or calculation of the stress- and strain fields on Earth’s surface and the rheologies of the crust, mantle, lithosphere and asthenosphere.
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View content license ↗ 地球的结构同其他类地行星相似，是层状的，它们可以借由化学和流变学特性区分。地球拥有一层富含硅的地壳、一层熔融状的地幔、一层液体的外核和一个固体的内核。这些对地球内部结构的认识来源自物理学证据和一些推断，这些证据包括火山喷出的物质和地震波。
The internal structure of Earth is the spatial variation of chemical and physical properties in the solid Earth. The primary structure is a series of layers: Its mechanical structure is of a rigid lithosphere, a semi-fluid asthenosphere, a semi-fluid mesosphere, a liquid outer core, and a solid, rigid inner core. Its chemical structure is of a silicate crust, a ferromagnesian mantle, and an iron-nickel core whose flowing upper portion generates the Earth's magnetic field. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of Earth's deep interior.
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View content license ↗ 正常重力或理论重力（英语：Normal gravity 或 Theoretical gravity）是正常椭球体在其外部空间所产生的重力，由意大利数学物理学家卡洛·索米里安在1929年引入，在大地测量学与地球物理学的研究中常用于对真实地球所产生的重力进行近似。在正常重力场中，正常椭球所产生的重力位和能够以较为简单的函数关系表达，且与真实的地球重力位相接近，而正常重力即为这一正常重力位所对应的重力。根据不同的定义方式，真实重力与正常重力之间的差异被称为重力异常或重力扰动。正常重力与真实重力之间的比例约为 99.995 % {\displaystyle 99.995\%} 。 由于正常重力能够被精确计算，其在高程系统中也用于代替真实重力来作为正常高系统所采用的测量值。
In geodesy and geophysics, theoretical gravity or normal gravity is an approximation of Earth's gravity, on or near its surface, by means of a mathematical model. The most common theoretical model is a rotating Earth ellipsoid of revolution (i.e., a spheroid). Other representations of gravity can be used in the study and analysis of other bodies, such as asteroids. Widely used representations of a gravity field in the context of geodesy include spherical harmonics, mascon models, and polyhedral gravity representations.
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View content license ↗ 断层（英语：Fault）是岩石中出现的破裂面。断层通常出现在地壳活动频繁的区域，并与地震、海啸等天灾有关联性。
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movements. Large faults within Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as the megathrust faults of subduction zones or transform faults. Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. Faults may also displace slowly, by aseismic creep. A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is a place where the fault can be seen or mapped on the surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on geological maps to represent a fault. A fault zone is a cluster of parallel faults. However, the term is also used for the zone of crushed rock along a single fault. Prolonged motion along closely spaced faults can blur the distinction, as the rock between the faults is converted to fault-bound lenses of rock and then progressively crushed.
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View content license ↗ 地层在地质学上指有一定层位的一层或一组岩石或土壤，上下层位之间被明显的层面或沉积间断面分开，地层分布范围可广达几十万平方千米，在悬崖峭壁、河岸或修建公路时开挖的地段，地层可能会暴露出，显示不同颜色或不同构造的层理，各层的厚度也不同，有的只有几毫米厚，有的可厚达几千米。各层的岩性、所含有的化石、矿物，以及其物理、化学成分都可能有明显的差异。根据其不同的岩性、化石等将其划分为不同的地层单位，研究地层的学科为地层学，是考古和研究地史的基础，也为勘探和找矿提供重要线索。 任何成层地层的序列，不论是沉积岩、喷出岩，只要不发生地层倒转、逆掩断层，总是先形成的在下、年代较老，后形成的在上、年代较新。若表现为地层之间的不整合或假整合，原因或是该地区未曾有过该地层的沉积，或者更可能是该地层沉积后，在上覆地层尚未沉积时就已被剥蚀。
In geology and related fields, a stratum (pl.: strata) is a layer of rock or sediment characterized by certain lithologic properties or attributes that distinguish it from adjacent layers from which it is separated by visible surfaces known as either bedding surfaces or bedding planes. Prior to the publication of the International Stratigraphic Guide, older publications have defined a stratum as being either equivalent to a single bed or composed of a number of beds; as a layer greater than 1 cm in thickness and constituting a part of a bed; or a general term that includes both bed and lamina. Related terms are substrate and substratum (pl.substrata), a stratum underlying another stratum.
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View content license ↗ 余震（英语：aftershock）是指跟随在主震后发生的一连串地震。主震发生后，断层上的应力分布会产生改变，在应力再调整的过程中就造成一系列的余震。余震与主震通常发生在同一个破裂带上，比主震的规模小，然而有时主震造成的应力变化会不局限于主震所造成的破裂面上，这个现象又称之为库仑应力转移。不过大致来说，余震反应主震的断层破裂面，对于了解断层的几何有极大的贡献。在时间上的分布通常以修正大森法则来描述，也经常以古登堡－芮克特定律关系式来描述规模的变化。
In seismology, an aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake, in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large earthquakes can have hundreds to thousands of instrumentally detectable aftershocks, which steadily decrease in magnitude and frequency according to a consistent pattern. In some earthquakes the main rupture happens in two or more steps, resulting in multiple main shocks. These are known as doublet earthquakes, and in general can be distinguished from aftershocks in having similar magnitudes and nearly identical seismic waveforms.
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View content license ↗ 潜移断层与会造成大规模运动的一般断层有明显不同，是一种持续释放能量缓慢运动的断层。。 世界上仅有非常少数的潜移断层案例。美国加州中部的霍利斯特存有一条著名的例子卡拉韦拉斯断层，其断层为圣安地列斯断层系列的一部分，属于右移走滑断层。
In geology, aseismic creep or fault creep is measurable surface displacement along a fault in the absence of notable earthquakes. Aseismic creep may also occur as "after-slip" days to years after an earthquake. Notable examples of aseismic slip include faults in California (e.g. Calaveras Fault, Hayward Fault, and San Andreas Fault).
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View content license ↗ 脆韧转换带是地壳强度最大的部分。对于富含石英和长石的大陆地壳而言，脆韧转换带出现在大约13到18公里深度（大致对应于250到400°C的温度）。在这一深度，岩石变得不容易破裂，而更容易由蠕变而造成韧性变形。这是因为材料的脆性强度随围压的增加而增加，而韧性强度随温度的增加而降低。地壳中，脆性强度越向下越大、韧性强度越向上越大；脆韧转换带出现在二者大小相等的深度；在这个带，地壳强度随深度的变化曲线呈现典型的“锯齿状”。因此，这个带是地壳强度最大的带，也是很多地震发生的深度。脆韧转换带的深度取决于应变速率和地温梯度；应变速率小、热流高的时候，深度小；应变速率大、热流低的时候，深度大。脆韧转换带出现的深度也受地壳岩石组成的影响。
The brittle-ductile transition zone (hereafter the "transition zone") is the zone of the Earth's crust that marks the transition from the upper, more brittle crust to the lower, more ductile crust. For quartz and feldspar-rich rocks in continental crust, the transition zone occurs at an approximate depth of 20 km, at temperatures of 250–400 °C. At this depth, rock becomes less likely to fracture, and more likely to deform ductilely by creep because the brittle strength of a material increases with confining pressure, while its ductile strength decreases with increasing temperature.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 霜震（英语：Frost quake，学名Cryoseism），亦作冰震、冻结地震或地震霜，是一种在气温急剧下降下所出现的自然现象，起因于被水分饱和的泥土或岩石。由于当中的水分被快速冷冻至冰点时膨胀，对周边环境产生应力，从而把泥土或岩石撑开引起冲击波。 原来霜震只发生在冻土、冰河或北极圈附近一些含大量地表水的泥土，但随着地球各地的气候变得极端，就连比较南部的一些大城市，例如加拿大的多伦多及南安大略省的气温从2013年圣诞左右的零下十多度跌至2014年元旦后的零下廿多三十度，亦引发这种自然现象。 霜震令居民听到类似烧枪或音爆的巨响。
A cryoseism, ice quake or frost quake, is a seismic event caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice, or by stresses generated at frozen lakes. As water drains into the ground, it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures, putting stress on its surroundings. This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism. The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous; therefore, accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events. Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 北京异常（英语：Beijing Anomaly）是指中国东北地区地幔中观测到的一个深度约为700至1400千米地震学之特征，该区域存在高度的地震衰减特性。据其发现者杰西·劳伦斯（Jesse Lawrence）和迈克尔·E·怀塞森称，北京异常是地幔中含有大量水的证据。
The Beijing Anomaly is an observed seismic feature in the Earth's mantle at a depth of around 700–1400 km below Northeastern China where a high degree of seismic attenuation was discovered to exist. According to its discoverers, Jesse Lawrence (from Scripps Institution of Oceanography) and Michael Wysession (from Washington University in St. Louis), the Beijing Anomaly is evidence for large amounts of water contained within the mantle.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 地震亮点（英语：bright spot）是指地震波属性在局部显示的高振幅异常，一般可指碳氢化合物的存在。起因是含碳氢化合物的砂岩其声阻抗比同层含水的声阻抗低的。如果上层被高声阻抗页岩覆盖，砂岩顶界反射系数在含碳氢化合物地区会增加。因而造成局部亮点 。在深部地层，页岩和砂岩声阻抗会交叉相反，反而造成暗点（dim spot）。
In reflection seismology, a bright spot is a local high amplitude seismic attribute anomaly that can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons and is therefore known as a direct hydrocarbon indicator. It is used by geophysicists in hydrocarbon exploration.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 面波（英语：surface wave，台湾作表面波），是沿不同介质（常常是两密度不同的流体）界面传播的波。折射率梯度波导下的电磁波也可以成为面波。地波（沿地面传播的无线电波）也是一种面波。
In physics, a surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the interface between differing media. A common example is gravity waves along the surface of liquids, such as ocean waves. Gravity waves can also occur within liquids, at the interface between two fluids with different densities. Elastic surface waves can travel along the surface of solids, such as Rayleigh or Love waves. Electromagnetic waves can also propagate as "surface waves" in that they can be guided along with a refractive index gradient or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In radio transmission, a ground wave is a guided wave that propagates close to the surface of the Earth.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 逆断层（英语：reverse fault），是断层的一种，位于弧前盆地，其断层上盘的岩体相对于下盘，往上移动，原来位置较低的地层会移动到位置较高地层的上方，因此较老的地层会出现在较新地层的上方，而所谓的逆也就是指最后位于上层的岩盘没有因为重力顺着破裂面下滑成为下盘。逆断层一般都是因为压缩力所造成，因此较常发生在聚合型板块边界上。 逆冲断层(thrust fault)则为倾角（断层面和水平面的夹角）小于或等于45度的断层。如果倾角小于15度，且断层上盘位移较远（量级为公里），与原地基岩不是一个整体，属外来岩体，则称为推覆体，断层称为推覆断层。
A thrust fault is a break in the Earth's crust, across which older rocks are pushed above younger rocks.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 土壤液化（英语：Soil liquefaction）是地震工程的一个术语，指土壤因地震的压密作用，造成原本在深层土壤的水分被挤压到表层，土壤颗粒间的有效应力下降为零，土壤失去剪应力强度，呈现如液态的状况。当地表承受不住地下水的压力时就会破裂。 土壤液化主要出现在分布深度较浅，充满水的砂质土壤或粘土，且其底部排水较差。通常在外力反复震荡下（如地震），松散的土壤因受到压缩，内部空隙减小，而挤压孔隙水，导致空隙内水压升高，砂粒间的结合力减少或消失。当水压升高至超过土壤内承受的外部压力时，加上水分不能从地底排出，就会产生土壤液化。液化时砂与水混和成如泥浆般的液体，使土壤失去支撑力，造成房屋倾斜、地层下陷、地下管线破裂或上浮。 最容易发生的液化的土壤是年代较近（如近一万年的冰河时期）的细沙，或颗粒大小相当且排列整齐的泥土中，地层只有数尺厚，富含水分。这样的地形通常可见于河岸、海岸、旧河道填土造屋、海埔新生地或因风力而堆积而成的沙丘中。土壤液化的例子有流沙、流粘土、浊流和地震液化等。
Soil liquefaction occurs when a cohesionless saturated or partially saturated soil substantially loses strength and stiffness in response to an applied stress such as shaking during an earthquake or other sudden change in stress condition, in which material that is ordinarily a solid behaves like a liquid, a sudden physical change termed thixotropy. In soil mechanics, the term "liquefied" was first used by Allen Hazen in reference to the 1918 failure of the Calaveras Dam in California. He described the mechanism of flow liquefaction of the embankment dam as: If the pressure of the water in the pores is great enough to carry all the load, it will have the effect of holding the particles apart and of producing a condition that is practically equivalent to that of quicksand... the initial movement of some part of the material might result in accumulating pressure, first on one point, and then on another, successively, as the early points of concentration were liquefied.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 叠加速度 （英语：Stacking velocity）是通过最佳拟合时距曲线所得的地震波在介质传播的速度值。叠加速度是地震资料处理的最基本步骤。 经过底下水平界面反射回来的地震波，其时距曲面线(走时曲线)是双曲线。关系如下： t 2 = t 0 2 + x 2 v 2 {\displaystyle t^{2}=t_{0}^{2}+{\frac {x^{2}}{v^{2}}}} 其中 t 0 {\displaystyle t_{0}} 为炮检距等于零时反射时间，x为炮检距，v为反射界面上覆层波速。 此公式指出地震波传播时间从地下界面反射的地面检波器最短的是垂直方向，又称法线反射。当检波器远离炮点时（炮检距）增加时，其反射时间会增加。反射时间按炮检距增加的时间曲线为时距曲线。
In reflection seismology, stacking velocity, or Normal Moveout (NMO) velocity, is the value of the seismic velocity obtained from the best fit of the traveltime curve by a hyperbola.. The hyperbolic approximation to the traveltime curve (two-way travel time versus offset) is known as Normal moveout (NMO). The procedure of finding the best fit on common midpoint (CMP) seismic gathers is known as NMO velocity analysis.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 地声，又称地鸣，是地震发生时，一小部分地震波能量传入空气变成声波而形成的声音，和地光一样是地震的征兆，往往发生在地震前的几秒、几分钟或几小时、甚至几天内，在震中区或近震中的范围内能普遍听到。在基岩露出地表和表土层很薄的靠山地区，容易听到地声。听到地声的时间一般在感到地面振动之前，也有的在感到地面振动之后。文献中记载人耳听到的地声，有的似雷声、炮声、撕布声、拖拉机声、风声、哭声等但有些时候地声不是每个人都能听到的。仪器记录的地声大多出现在震前数分钟至数小时内。 实验表明，在应力达到岩石破裂强度的一半时，声发射信号显著增加，当微破裂进一步发展时，声发射频率由高频向低频变化，因而有可能被仪器和人耳接收。由于地声多在临震前出现，有可能对临震预报和自救有意义。
Subterranean rumbling is a phenomenon in which the ground vibrates and makes sounds due to an earthquake. During earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, the ground vibrates, sometimes creating short-period seismic wave motion (ground motion) that reaches the air and becomes sounds (sound waves), and low sounds can be heard. This often occurs during shallow-focus earthquakes and earthquake swarms. Even microearthquakes that produce noticeable tremors can sometimes produce rumbling. Hard ground tends to amplify rumbling. In earthquake-prone Japan rumbling is frequently observed near Mt. Tsukuba in Ibaraki Prefecture. This is believed to be due to local exposure of basement rocks. During the 1965 Matsushiro earthquake swarm, a remarkable subterranean rumbling was observed.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 褶皱是层状岩石受力后形成的波状弯曲。绝大多数的层状岩石是由堆积在盆地、海岸的平坦水平成层的沉积物形成，如隆升出露地面，形成水平岩层。
In structural geology, a fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, that are bent or curved ("folded") during permanent deformation. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur as single isolated folds or in periodic sets (known as fold trains). Synsedimentary folds are those formed during sedimentary deposition. Folds form under varied conditions of stress, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 斜线阵（Echelon formation），又名梯形阵，军队阵式的一种，亦是一种战术思想。顾名思义，斜线阵式是以军队斜线式伫列的阵形作战，或以左至右倾前（右斜阵式），或以右至左倾前（左斜阵式）。 它最早的运用，是在古希腊底比斯的名将伊巴密浓达的留克特拉战役。当时针对希腊重步兵方阵一线平推平均分布兵力的特点，其无法在不将列数减少的情况下排出与斯巴达军相同长度的阵形，伊巴密浓达放弃尝试排出与斯巴达相同长度阵形，集中兵力于一翼，改为将左翼的列数增多，由传统的八至十二列改为五十列，力求获得突破。但是有强就有弱，如果自己加强的一侧获得胜利，而削弱的一侧被对方突破，仍然是没有意义的。所以为了保护自己受到削弱的一翼，就把它向后回缩并延迟战斗，尽量拖延它与敌人接触的时间，其加强了的左翼则以双倍速度冲向斯巴达军，希望加强的一翼能够求得决定性的突破。就在这一战，他用这战阵击败了斯巴达精锐部队。 后来普鲁士的腓特烈大帝发现从瑞典国王古斯塔夫开始，欧洲军队为了充分发扬火力，采取横形阵，威力固然大大提高，但是也存在分散使用兵力的弊病。为了发扬火力，横队队形是必须的，于是“重新发明”了伊巴密浓达的斜线阵形，将它运用于现代，并在索尔战役及罗斯巴赫会战中取得辉煌成果，令得此阵式名扬天下，各国更纷纷模仿。 斜线阵现今是陆军的基本阵式之一，尤其用于装甲部队，坦克。此阵式亦受战机及防暴警察所采用。
An echelon formation () is a (usually military) formation in which its units are arranged diagonally. Each unit is stationed behind and to the right (a "right echelon"), or behind and to the left ("left echelon"), of the unit ahead. The name of the formation comes from the French word échelon, meaning a rung of a ladder, which describes the shape that this formation has when viewed from above or below.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 断层崖（英语：Fault scarp）是地表上的一个陡坡，由断层的一侧相对于另一侧相对的垂直移动而造成的。 它是沿断层运动的地形表现。它们代表旧的地质断层活动做造成的差异地形和随后经过侵蚀的地形，或现今断层活动的地形。
A fault scarp is a small step-like offset of the ground surface in which one side of a fault has shifted vertically in relation to the other. The topographic expression of fault scarps results from the differential erosion of rocks of contrasting resistance and the displacement of land surface by movement along the fault. Differential movement and erosion may occur either along older inactive geologic faults, or recent active faults.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 流状条带（英语：flow banding）是指火成岩的带状或层状结构。 这种结构是当岩浆或熔岩与岩石界面接触时，因摩擦阻力而造成。例如当岩浆侵入到围岩中，或熔岩流到地表时都能造成此种结构。 当岩浆和熔岩与围岩接触时，会和围岩产生摩擦并降低温度而增加黏度，这就导致岩浆或熔岩内的斑晶和捕虏岩在界面附近流动减慢，最终滞留在界面附近中。这就形成了层流，呈带状、条纹状的外观。 分离结晶也造成流状条带，早期的结晶会被从岩浆中移除，滞留在边缘带，集聚成带状分布。这也导致岩浆在流动过程中的成分变化。岩浆中的晶体堆积，也能造成层状火成岩，形成假沉积结构。 流状条带由不同成分的熔岩混合而造成流状条带亦有报导。在岩浆上升时，在岩浆室遇到不同的岩浆，因分离结晶阶段不同，混合后亦能造成流状条带。
Flow banding is a geological term to describe bands or layers that can sometimes be seen in rock that formed from magma (molten rock). Flow banding is caused by friction of the viscous magma that is in contact with a solid rock interface, usually the wall rock to an intrusive chamber or, if the magma is erupted, the surface of the Earth across which the lava is flowing. The friction and viscosity of the magma causes phenocrysts and xenoliths within the magma or lava to slow down near the interface and become trapped in a viscous layer. This forms laminar flow, which manifests as a banded, streaky appearance. Flow banding also results from the process of fractional crystallization that occurs by convection if the crystals that are caught in the flow-banded margins are removed from the melt. This can change the composition of the melt in large intrusions, leading to differentiation. In layered intrusions, flow banding can occur with crystal accumulation, forming pseudo-sedimentary structures.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
View content license ↗ 叶理（Foliation）是在岩石中的纤维状(此形容词需要表明文献，与普通地质不符）平面组织，常作为变质岩鉴定特征的依据。
Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks. Each layer can be as thin as a sheet of paper, or over a meter in thickness. The word comes from the Latin word folium, meaning "leaf", and refers to its sheet-like planar structure. It is caused by shearing forces (pressures pushing different sections of the rock in different directions), or differential pressure (higher pressure from one direction than in others). The layers form parallel to the direction of the shear, or perpendicular to the direction of higher pressure. Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks are typically formed in the absence of significant differential pressure or shear. Foliation is common in rocks affected by the regional metamorphic compression typical of areas of mountain belt formation (orogenic belts). More technically, foliation is any penetrative planar fabric present in metamorphic rocks. Rocks exhibiting foliation include the standard sequence formed by the prograde metamorphism of mudrocks; slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss.
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Wikipedia contributors · Retrieved2026-10-04 · CC BY-SA 4.0. Introductions were extracted as plain text and shortened. Language versions may emphasize different aspects.For concept reference; consult the original standards for authoritative requirements.
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